Potassium deficiency can lead to hypokalemia — low blood potassium, less than 3.5 millimoles per liter of blood (mmol/L) — which can cause a variety of signs and symptoms, including tiredness, loss of focus, loss of appetite, vomiting, and muscle weakness.<a href="#ref-5" id="ref-link-5" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Adv Physiol Educ (2016-Dec)&lt;/div&gt;'>[5]</a><a href="#ref-48" id="ref-link-48" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Maria Lukács Krogager, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33956964" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Update on management of hypokalaemia and goals for the lower potassium level in patients with cardiovascular disease: a review in collaboration with the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapy
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Pharmacother (2021 Nov 3)&lt;/div&gt;'>[48]</a><a href="#ref-49" id="ref-link-49" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kardalas E, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29540487" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Hypokalemia: a clinical update.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Endocr Connect (2018-Apr)&lt;/div&gt;'>[49]</a> In more serious cases, hypokalemia can also lead to heart arrhythmias, including <a href="/conditions/atrial-fibrillation/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Atrial Fibrillation&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Atrial fibrillation&lt;/em&gt; (AF) is the most common type of arrhythmia: a problem with the speed or rhythm of the heartbeat. AF can cause chest pain, dizziness, and fatigue. It also increases the risk of stroke.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">atrial fibrillation</a>),<a href="#ref-48" id="ref-link-48" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Maria Lukács Krogager, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33956964" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Update on management of hypokalaemia and goals for the lower potassium level in patients with cardiovascular disease: a review in collaboration with the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapy
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Pharmacother (2021 Nov 3)&lt;/div&gt;'>[48]</a><a href="#ref-49" id="ref-link-49" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kardalas E, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29540487" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Hypokalemia: a clinical update.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Endocr Connect (2018-Apr)&lt;/div&gt;'>[49]</a><a href="#ref-11" id="ref-link-11" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Coca SG, Perazella MA, Buller GK. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15685500" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;The cardiovascular implications of hypokalemia.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Am J Kidney Dis (2005 Feb)&lt;/div&gt;'>[11]</a><a href="#ref-13" id="ref-link-13" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Sorraya N, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34532036" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Association between serum potassium and risk of all-cause mortality among chronic kidney diseases patients: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of more than one million participants.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Food Sci Nutr (2021 Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[13]</a><a href="#ref-12" id="ref-link-12" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Farah R, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32723154" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Low serum potassium levels are associated with the risk of atrial fibrillation.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Acta Cardiol (2021 Oct)&lt;/div&gt;'>[12]</a> and is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular-related mortality.<a href="#ref-14" id="ref-link-14" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Xi H, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31060369" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Serum potassium levels and mortality of patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Eur J Prev Cardiol (2019 Jan)&lt;/div&gt;'>[14]</a><a href="#ref-15" id="ref-link-15" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Hoppe LK, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29679302" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Association of Abnormal Serum Potassium Levels with Arrhythmias and Cardiovascular Mortality: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Cardiovasc Drugs Ther (2018 Apr)&lt;/div&gt;'>[15]</a><a href="#ref-17" id="ref-link-17" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Fan Y, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38195532" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium levels and the risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality among patients with cardiovascular diseases: a meta-analysis of cohort studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Nutr J (2024 Jan 10)&lt;/div&gt;'>[17]</a>

What are the signs and symptoms of potassium deficiency?

Potassium, an element essential for maintaining normal cellular function in the body, regulates electrolyte balance, <a href="/outcomes/blood-pressure/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Blood Pressure&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Blood pressure is the force that blood exerts on blood vessels as it circulates. &lt;em&gt;High&lt;/em&gt; blood pressure (&lt;em&gt;hyper&lt;/em&gt;tension) and &lt;em&gt;low&lt;/em&gt; blood pressure (&lt;em&gt;hypo&lt;/em&gt;tension) can each lead to a variety of health issues.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">blood pressure</a>, and electrical impulses in nerves and muscle cells.<a href="#ref-5" id="ref-link-5" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Adv Physiol Educ (2016-Dec)&lt;/div&gt;'>[5]</a><a href="#ref-6" id="ref-link-6" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kettritz R, Loffing J. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Pharmacol Ther (2023-Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[6]</a> The latter is crucial for maintaining contractile function in muscles, including the heart. 
Potassium is obtained in the diet and is found in many foods, including fruits, vegetables, legumes, meat, and animal products (milk, yogurt, etc.).<a href="#ref-1" id="ref-link-1" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip="">[1]</a><a href="#ref-3" id="ref-link-3" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;&lt;a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Potassium-HealthProfessional/" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals; USA: National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS); last updated June 2022; cited February 2024
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;(2022 June)&lt;/div&gt;'>[3]</a> In the USA, the adequate intake (AI) for potassium — the amount assumed to ensure nutritional adequacy — in adults without known health conditions is 3,400 mg/day in males and 2,600 mg/day in females, but the AI changes with age and during pregnancy (see the <a href="#dosage-information">Dosage Information</a> section).<a href="#ref-1" id="ref-link-1" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip="">[1]</a><a href="#ref-3" id="ref-link-3" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;&lt;a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Potassium-HealthProfessional/" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals; USA: National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS); last updated June 2022; cited February 2024
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;(2022 June)&lt;/div&gt;'>[3]</a>
The potassium concentration in the blood is tightly regulated within a range of 3.5 to 4.5 millimoles per liter of blood (mmol/L).<a href="#ref-5" id="ref-link-5" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Adv Physiol Educ (2016-Dec)&lt;/div&gt;'>[5]</a><a href="#ref-7" id="ref-link-7" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;mb-3&quot;&gt;O'Donnell M, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37936275&quot; target=&quot;\_blank&quot; rel=&quot;noopener noreferrer&quot;&gt;Potassium intake: the Cinderella electrolyte.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Eur Heart J (2023-Dec-14)&lt;/div&gt;">[7]</a><a href="#ref-6" id="ref-link-6" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kettritz R, Loffing J. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Pharmacol Ther (2023-Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[6]</a> Several factors can push blood potassium concentrations outside this range. These include dietary potassium intake, some drugs (e.g., <a href="/outcomes/insulin/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Insulin&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Insulin is a hormone that rises when blood glucose rises. It lowers blood glucose by telling cells to absorb and use it. If your cells’ insulin sensitivity is low, they won’t absorb enough glucose — you have insulin resistance, which can lead to type 2 diabetes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">insulin</a>, <a href="https://www.drugs.com/mca/diuretics">diuretics</a>, and <a href="https://www.drugs.com/drug-class/phosphate-binders.html">potassium binders</a>), and certain clinical conditions (e.g., <a href="/conditions/chronic-kidney-disease/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Chronic Kidney Disease&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a degenerative disease of the kidneys. In addition to medication, CKD is managed nutritionally with diets that modify the intake of specific nutrients affected by impaired kidney function.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">chronic kidney disease</a> and diabetic ketoacidosis).<a href="#ref-5" id="ref-link-5" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Adv Physiol Educ (2016-Dec)&lt;/div&gt;'>[5]</a><a href="#ref-7" id="ref-link-7" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;mb-3&quot;&gt;O'Donnell M, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37936275&quot; target=&quot;\_blank&quot; rel=&quot;noopener noreferrer&quot;&gt;Potassium intake: the Cinderella electrolyte.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Eur Heart J (2023-Dec-14)&lt;/div&gt;">[7]</a><a href="#ref-6" id="ref-link-6" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kettritz R, Loffing J. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Pharmacol Ther (2023-Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[6]</a><a href="#ref-8" id="ref-link-8" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Romagnani P, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29168475" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Chronic kidney disease.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Nat Rev Dis Primers (2017-Nov-23)&lt;/div&gt;'>[8]</a><a href="#ref-9" id="ref-link-9" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Dhatariya KK, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32409703" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Diabetic ketoacidosis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Nat Rev Dis Primers (2020-May-14)&lt;/div&gt;'>[9]</a> Blood potassium concentrations outside the healthy reference range — hyperkalemia (high blood potassium<a href="#ref-10" id="ref-link-10" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Krishnan SK, Lepor NE. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27725623" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Acute and Chronic Cardiovascular Effects of Hyperkalemia: New Insights Into Prevention and Clinical Management.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Rev Cardiovasc Med (2016)&lt;/div&gt;'>[10]</a>) and hypokalemia (low blood potassium<a href="#ref-11" id="ref-link-11" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Coca SG, Perazella MA, Buller GK. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15685500" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;The cardiovascular implications of hypokalemia.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Am J Kidney Dis (2005 Feb)&lt;/div&gt;'>[11]</a>) — are problematic because they’re associated with an increased risk of heart problems (e.g., heart arrhythmias) or dying from a cardiovascular event.<a href="#ref-12" id="ref-link-12" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Farah R, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32723154" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Low serum potassium levels are associated with the risk of atrial fibrillation.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Acta Cardiol (2021 Oct)&lt;/div&gt;'>[12]</a><a href="#ref-13" id="ref-link-13" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Sorraya N, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34532036" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Association between serum potassium and risk of all-cause mortality among chronic kidney diseases patients: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of more than one million participants.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Food Sci Nutr (2021 Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[13]</a><a href="#ref-14" id="ref-link-14" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Xi H, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31060369" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Serum potassium levels and mortality of patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Eur J Prev Cardiol (2019 Jan)&lt;/div&gt;'>[14]</a><a href="#ref-15" id="ref-link-15" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Hoppe LK, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29679302" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Association of Abnormal Serum Potassium Levels with Arrhythmias and Cardiovascular Mortality: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Cardiovasc Drugs Ther (2018 Apr)&lt;/div&gt;'>[15]</a><a href="#ref-16" id="ref-link-16" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Colombo MG, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29473462" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Association of serum potassium concentration with mortality and ventricular arrhythmias in patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Eur J Prev Cardiol (2018 Apr)&lt;/div&gt;'>[16]</a><a href="#ref-17" id="ref-link-17" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Fan Y, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38195532" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium levels and the risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality among patients with cardiovascular diseases: a meta-analysis of cohort studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Nutr J (2024 Jan 10)&lt;/div&gt;'>[17]</a>

What is potassium?

<input id="sidebar-662a527c7e00c" type="checkbox" class="peer hidden">
<div class="sidebar bg-red">
<label for="sidebar-662a527c7e00c">
<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewbox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor">
<path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M14.77 12.79a.75.75 0 01-1.06-.02L10 8.832 6.29 12.77a.75.75 0 11-1.08-1.04l4.25-4.5a.75.75 0 011.08 0l4.25 4.5a.75.75 0 01-.02 1.06z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path>
</svg>
</label>
<h1>⚠️ Caution: High blood pressure should be managed by your doctor.</h1>
Blood pressure lowering medications, <a href="/diets/sodium-restriction/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Sodium Restriction&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sodium restriction describes the reduction of dietary sodium. This is usually done to manage high blood pressure, which is a condition that can increase your risk for cardiovascular events (i.e., stroke and heart attack). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">sodium restriction</a> diets, and reduced-sodium added-potassium salt substitutes are used to treat hypertension, but should be used under the direction of your doctor.
</div>
A reduced-sodium added-potassium salt substitute is sometimes used to supplement a <a href="/diets/sodium-restriction/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Sodium Restriction&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sodium restriction describes the reduction of dietary sodium. This is usually done to manage high blood pressure, which is a condition that can increase your risk for cardiovascular events (i.e., stroke and heart attack). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">sodium-restricted</a> (reduced salt) diet to help treat <a href="/conditions/high-blood-pressure/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;High Blood Pressure&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;High blood pressure is when the force of your blood pushing against the walls of the arteries is consistently too high. High blood pressure is often caused by an unhealthy lifestyle, although it can result from other medical conditions as well.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">hypertension</a>. Such salt substitutes typically contain a reduced amount of sodium chloride and an added amount of potassium chloride, and <a href="/glossary/randomized-controlled-trial/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Randomized controlled trial&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for determining whether an intervention actually causes any effects. The use of randomization and control groups helps eliminate the effects of factors other than the treatment being studied.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">randomized controlled trials</a> show that they can effectively reduce blood pressure.<a href="#ref-42" id="ref-link-42" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Bruce Neal, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34459569" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Effect of Salt Substitution on Cardiovascular Events and Death
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;N Engl J Med (2021 Sep 16)&lt;/div&gt;'>[42]</a><a href="#ref-43" id="ref-link-43" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Tsai YC, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36196475" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Effectiveness of salt substitute on cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) (2022-Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[43]</a><a href="#ref-44" id="ref-link-44" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Yu J, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33782684" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Effects of a reduced-sodium added-potassium salt substitute on blood pressure in rural Indian hypertensive patients: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Am J Clin Nutr (2021 Jul 1)&lt;/div&gt;'>[44]</a><a href="#ref-45" id="ref-link-45" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Zhou B, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27128565" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Intake of low sodium salt substitute for 3years attenuates the increase in blood pressure in a rural population of North China - A randomized controlled trial.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Int J Cardiol (2016 Jul 15)&lt;/div&gt;'>[45]</a><a href="#ref-46" id="ref-link-46" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Zhao X, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25338053" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Using a low-sodium, high-potassium salt substitute to reduce blood pressure among Tibetans with high blood pressure: a patient-blinded randomized controlled trial.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;PLoS One (2014)&lt;/div&gt;'>[46]</a> However, this does not mean that more is better — some evidence shows that supplementation with potassium salts in high doses might increase blood pressure.<a href="#ref-24" id="ref-link-24" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Filippini T, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32500831" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium Intake and Blood Pressure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Am Heart Assoc (2020-06-16)&lt;/div&gt;'>[24]</a> 
Because <a href="/conditions/high-blood-pressure/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;High Blood Pressure&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;High blood pressure is when the force of your blood pushing against the walls of the arteries is consistently too high. High blood pressure is often caused by an unhealthy lifestyle, although it can result from other medical conditions as well.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">high blood pressure</a> increases the risk of <a href="/conditions/cardiovascular-disease/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Cardiovascular Disease&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a broad term that refers to various diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Atherosclerotic CVD (ASCVD) is the most common subtype of CVD and causes strokes and heart attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">cardiovascular disease</a> and <a href="/conditions/stroke/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Stroke&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A stroke is a medical emergency. If you are experiencing stroke symptoms, call emergency medical services, even if they resolve quickly. This page does not discuss acute treatments for stroke, but rather focuses on mitigating the risk of having a stroke and supporting recovery from a stroke. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">stroke</a>-related mortality, it is possible that the blood-pressure-lowering effect of a reduced-sodium added-potassium salt substitute could reduce mortality risk. Some current evidence supports this hypothesis,<a href="#ref-42" id="ref-link-42" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Bruce Neal, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34459569" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Effect of Salt Substitution on Cardiovascular Events and Death
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;N Engl J Med (2021 Sep 16)&lt;/div&gt;'>[42]</a><a href="#ref-43" id="ref-link-43" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Tsai YC, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36196475" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Effectiveness of salt substitute on cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) (2022-Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[43]</a><a href="#ref-47" id="ref-link-47" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Hao Sun, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34079827" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Long-Term Effect of Salt Substitute on All-Cause and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality: An Exploratory Follow-Up of a Randomized Controlled Trial
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Front Cardiovasc Med (2021 May 17)&lt;/div&gt;'>[47]</a> but due to the dearth of studies and the large between-study variability, further long-term high-quality <a href="/glossary/observational-study/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Observational study&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;An observational study is designed to find a relationship between natural exposures and outcomes. There are no intentional interventions by researchers in observational studies and a cause-and-effect relationship usually cannot be determined.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">observational studies</a> and <a href="/glossary/randomized-controlled-trial/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Randomized controlled trial&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for determining whether an intervention actually causes any effects. The use of randomization and control groups helps eliminate the effects of factors other than the treatment being studied.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">randomized controlled trials</a> are needed to make firm conclusions.

What is the effect of a reduced-sodium added-potassium salt substitute diet?

Some studies have shown that short-term daily supplementation with a potassium salt (e.g., potassium chloride or potassium citrate) can lower <a href="/outcomes/blood-pressure/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Blood Pressure&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Blood pressure is the force that blood exerts on blood vessels as it circulates. &lt;em&gt;High&lt;/em&gt; blood pressure (&lt;em&gt;hyper&lt;/em&gt;tension) and &lt;em&gt;low&lt;/em&gt; blood pressure (&lt;em&gt;hypo&lt;/em&gt;tension) can each lead to a variety of health issues.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">blood pressure</a> in adults without known health conditions<a href="#ref-18" id="ref-link-18" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Braschi A, Naismith DJ. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18053306" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;The effect of a dietary supplement of potassium chloride or potassium citrate on blood pressure in predominantly normotensive volunteers.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Br J Nutr (2008-Jun)&lt;/div&gt;'>[18]</a> and in people with hypertension.<a href="#ref-19" id="ref-link-19" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Feng J He, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15723964" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Effect of short-term supplementation of potassium chloride and potassium citrate on blood pressure in hypertensives
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Hypertension (2005 Apr)&lt;/div&gt;'>[19]</a><a href="#ref-20" id="ref-link-20" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;S R Smith, P E Klotman, L P Svetkey. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1627756" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium chloride lowers blood pressure and causes natriuresis in older patients with hypertension
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Am Soc Nephrol (1992 Feb)&lt;/div&gt;'>[20]</a> While early systematic reviews and <a href="/glossary/meta-analysis/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Meta-analysis&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A meta-analysis is usually produced as part of a systematic review. It combines the numerical results from several studies into an average number. Studies that differ too much in design cannot be properly meta-analyzed.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">meta-analyses</a> found that the evidence was mixed and that there was large variability in effects between studies,<a href="#ref-21" id="ref-link-21" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;H O Dickinson, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16856053" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium supplementation for the management of primary hypertension in adults
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2006 Jul 19)&lt;/div&gt;'>[21]</a> it now appears that supplementation with a potassium salt can cause a moderate and meaningful effect to lower blood pressure.<a href="#ref-22" id="ref-link-22" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Jalal Poorolajal, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28419159" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Oral potassium supplementation for management of essential hypertension: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;PLoS One (2017 Apr 18)&lt;/div&gt;'>[22]</a><a href="#ref-23" id="ref-link-23" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Filippini T, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28024910" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;The effect of potassium supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Int J Cardiol (2017-Mar-01)&lt;/div&gt;'>[23]</a> However, the blood-pressure-lowering effect of potassium is likely to be greatest in people with lower potassium intake at baseline, higher sodium intake at baseline, or in people who don’t use a blood-pressure-lowering medication.<a href="#ref-23" id="ref-link-23" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Filippini T, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28024910" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;The effect of potassium supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Int J Cardiol (2017-Mar-01)&lt;/div&gt;'>[23]</a><a href="#ref-24" id="ref-link-24" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Filippini T, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32500831" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium Intake and Blood Pressure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Am Heart Assoc (2020-06-16)&lt;/div&gt;'>[24]</a>
<a href="/glossary/observational-study/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Observational study&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;An observational study is designed to find a relationship between natural exposures and outcomes. There are no intentional interventions by researchers in observational studies and a cause-and-effect relationship usually cannot be determined.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">Observational studies</a> find a correlation between higher levels of daily dietary potassium intake and a reduced risk of <a href="/conditions/stroke/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Stroke&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A stroke is a medical emergency. If you are experiencing stroke symptoms, call emergency medical services, even if they resolve quickly. This page does not discuss acute treatments for stroke, but rather focuses on mitigating the risk of having a stroke and supporting recovery from a stroke. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">stroke</a> and <a href="/conditions/cardiovascular-disease/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Cardiovascular Disease&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a broad term that refers to various diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Atherosclerotic CVD (ASCVD) is the most common subtype of CVD and causes strokes and heart attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">cardiovascular disease</a>.<a href="#ref-25" id="ref-link-25" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;mb-3&quot;&gt;D'Elia L, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21371638&quot; target=&quot;\_blank&quot; rel=&quot;noopener noreferrer&quot;&gt;Potassium intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease a meta-analysis of prospective studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Am Coll Cardiol (2011-Mar-08)&lt;/div&gt;">[25]</a><a href="#ref-26" id="ref-link-26" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Marco Vinceti, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27792643" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Meta-Analysis of Potassium Intake and the Risk of Stroke
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Am Heart Assoc (2016 Oct 6)&lt;/div&gt;'>[26]</a> <a href="#ref-27" id="ref-link-27" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Fan Y, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37788131" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium status and the risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective observational studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr (2023-Oct-03)&lt;/div&gt;'>[27]</a><a href="#ref-28" id="ref-link-28" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Nancy J Aburto, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23558164" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Effect of increased potassium intake on cardiovascular risk factors and disease: systematic review and meta-analyses
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;BMJ (2013 Apr 3)&lt;/div&gt;'>[28]</a> However, because these studies estimate dietary potassium intake from food recall questionnaires, the direct protective effect of dietary potassium on cerebrovascular or cardiovascular risk cannot currently be proven.
Observational studies also show an association between higher levels of daily dietary potassium intake and better bone health.<a href="#ref-29" id="ref-link-29" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kong SH, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28093633" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Dietary potassium intake is beneficial to bone health in a low calcium intake population: the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) (2008-2011).
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Osteoporos Int (2017-May)&lt;/div&gt;'>[29]</a><a href="#ref-30" id="ref-link-30" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Ha J, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32042374" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;The association of potassium intake with bone mineral density and the prevalence of osteoporosis among older Korean adults.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Nutr Res Pract (2020-Feb)&lt;/div&gt;'>[30]</a> Furthermore, <a href="/glossary/randomized-controlled-trial/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Randomized controlled trial&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for determining whether an intervention actually causes any effects. The use of randomization and control groups helps eliminate the effects of factors other than the treatment being studied.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">randomized controlled trials</a> show that supplementation with potassium improves aspects of bone metabolism in postmenopausal women with <a href="/conditions/osteopenia/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Osteopenia&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Osteopenia refers to a decrease in bone mineral density that results in reduced bone strength and an increased risk of broken bones. In osteopenia, bone mineral density is below average, but not severe enough to be considered osteoporosis. Osteopenia occurs naturally with advancing age, but may be aggravated by lifestyle factors (e.g., sedentary lifestyle, poor nutrition), genetics, medication use, or certain disease states.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">osteopenia</a><a href="#ref-31" id="ref-link-31" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Gregory NS, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26401577" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;POTASSIUM CITRATE DECREASES BONE RESORPTION IN POSTMENOPAUSAL WOMEN WITH OSTEOPENIA: A RANDOMIZED, DOUBLE-BLIND CLINICAL TRIAL.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Endocr Pract (2015-Dec)&lt;/div&gt;'>[31]</a><a href="#ref-32" id="ref-link-32" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Granchi D, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30213095" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium Citrate Supplementation Decreases the Biochemical Markers of Bone Loss in a Group of Osteopenic Women: The Results of a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Pilot Study.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Nutrients (2018-Sep-12)&lt;/div&gt;'>[32]</a> and in older adults with <a href="/conditions/osteoporosis/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Osteoporosis&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Osteoporosis is a condition of having weak and brittle bones. The main goal for people with osteoporosis is to prevent bone fractures by strengthening the bones and by avoiding falls.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">osteoporosis</a>.<a href="#ref-33" id="ref-link-33" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;H Lambert, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25572045" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;The effect of supplementation with alkaline potassium salts on bone metabolism: a meta-analysis
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Osteoporos Int (2015 Apr)&lt;/div&gt;'>[33]</a><a href="#ref-34" id="ref-link-34" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Dawson-Hughes B, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25990255" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium Bicarbonate Supplementation Lowers Bone Turnover and Calcium Excretion in Older Men and Women: A Randomized Dose-Finding Trial.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Bone Miner Res (2015-Nov)&lt;/div&gt;'>[34]</a> However, it is currently unclear whether supplementation with potassium prevents bone loss in such people.
Potassium-containing drugs — e.g., <a href="https://www.drugs.com/potassium_chloride.html">potassium chloride</a>, <a href="https://www.drugs.com/mtm/potassium-gluconate.html">potassium gluconate</a>, <a href="https://www.drugs.com/mtm/potassium-bicarbonate.html">potassium bicarbonate</a>, <a href="https://www.drugs.com/cdi/potassium-acetate.html">potassium acetate</a>, etc. — are used to treat low blood potassium (hypokalemia). Other potassium-containing drugs are also used clinically. For example, <a href="https://www.drugs.com/pro/potassium-citrate.html">potassium citrate</a> is used to treat some kidney defects, and <a href="https://www.drugs.com/mtm/potassium-phosphate.html">potassium phosphate</a> is used in the treatment and prevention of low blood phosphorus (hypophosphatemia).

What are potassium’s main benefits?

A high blood potassium concentration — hyperkalemia<a href="#ref-10" id="ref-link-10" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Krishnan SK, Lepor NE. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27725623" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Acute and Chronic Cardiovascular Effects of Hyperkalemia: New Insights Into Prevention and Clinical Management.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Rev Cardiovasc Med (2016)&lt;/div&gt;'>[10]</a> — is associated with an increased risk of heart problems (e.g., heart arrhythmias).<a href="#ref-14" id="ref-link-14" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Xi H, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31060369" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Serum potassium levels and mortality of patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Eur J Prev Cardiol (2019 Jan)&lt;/div&gt;'>[14]</a><a href="#ref-15" id="ref-link-15" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Hoppe LK, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29679302" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Association of Abnormal Serum Potassium Levels with Arrhythmias and Cardiovascular Mortality: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Cardiovasc Drugs Ther (2018 Apr)&lt;/div&gt;'>[15]</a><a href="#ref-16" id="ref-link-16" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Colombo MG, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29473462" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Association of serum potassium concentration with mortality and ventricular arrhythmias in patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Eur J Prev Cardiol (2018 Apr)&lt;/div&gt;'>[16]</a><a href="#ref-17" id="ref-link-17" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Fan Y, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38195532" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium levels and the risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality among patients with cardiovascular diseases: a meta-analysis of cohort studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Nutr J (2024 Jan 10)&lt;/div&gt;'>[17]</a> Hyperkalemia-related symptoms have been associated with salt substitutes in several case studies,<a href="#ref-35" id="ref-link-35" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Schim van der Loeff HJ, Strack van Schijndel RJ, Thijs LG. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3068270" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Cardiac arrest due to oral potassium intake.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Intensive Care Med (1988)&lt;/div&gt;'>[35]</a><a href="#ref-36" id="ref-link-36" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Hoyt RE. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3747085" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Hyperkalemia due to salt substitutes.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;JAMA (1986-Oct-03)&lt;/div&gt;'>[36]</a><a href="#ref-37" id="ref-link-37" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;C J Doorenbos, C G Vermeij. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12511461" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Danger of salt substitutes that contain potassium in patients with renal failure
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;BMJ (2003 Jan 4)&lt;/div&gt;'>[37]</a><a href="#ref-38" id="ref-link-38" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;K Ray, S Dorman, R Watson. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10516744" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Severe hyperkalaemia due to the concomitant use of salt substitutes and ACE inhibitors in hypertension: a potentially life threatening interaction
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Hum Hypertens (1999 Oct)&lt;/div&gt;'>[38]</a><a href="#ref-39" id="ref-link-39" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Wetli CV, Davis JH. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/682320" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Fatal hyperkalemia from accidental overdose of potassium chloride.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;JAMA (1978-Sep-22)&lt;/div&gt;'>[39]</a> but case studies of individual people only show what is possible rather than what is typical.
In people without known health conditions, <a href="/outcomes/serum-potassium/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Serum Potassium&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Potassium is an electrolyte, an essential mineral that carries an electric charge when dissolved in a liquid and aids in control of muscle and nerve activity. “Serum potassium” refers to the amount of potassium in the blood.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">serum potassium</a> concentrations are between 3.5 and 4.5 millimoles per liter of blood (mmol/L).<a href="#ref-5" id="ref-link-5" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Adv Physiol Educ (2016-Dec)&lt;/div&gt;'>[5]</a><a href="#ref-7" id="ref-link-7" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;mb-3&quot;&gt;O'Donnell M, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37936275&quot; target=&quot;\_blank&quot; rel=&quot;noopener noreferrer&quot;&gt;Potassium intake: the Cinderella electrolyte.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Eur Heart J (2023-Dec-14)&lt;/div&gt;">[7]</a><a href="#ref-6" id="ref-link-6" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kettritz R, Loffing J. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Pharmacol Ther (2023-Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[6]</a> A <a href="/glossary/meta-analysis/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Meta-analysis&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A meta-analysis is usually produced as part of a systematic review. It combines the numerical results from several studies into an average number. Studies that differ too much in design cannot be properly meta-analyzed.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">meta-analysis</a> of <a href="/glossary/randomized-controlled-trial/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Randomized controlled trial&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for determining whether an intervention actually causes any effects. The use of randomization and control groups helps eliminate the effects of factors other than the treatment being studied.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">randomized controlled trials</a> found that daily supplementation with potassium chloride in the range of 22 to 140 mmol/day — equivalent to approximately 0.9 to 5.5 grams/day of potassium — caused a <a href="/glossary/statistical-significance/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Statistical significance&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A p-value is statistically significant if it falls below a (somewhat arbitrary) threshold called a significance level, which is traditionally set at 0.05. Statistical significance suggests that the data aren’t explained well by the null hypothesis — the assumption that the intervention (or variable) being studied actually makes no difference to the outcome you’re studying. If the results are statistically significant, you can reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there actually is a difference.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">statistically significant</a> but clinically meaningless increase (+0.14 mmol/L) in <a href="/outcomes/serum-potassium/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Serum Potassium&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Potassium is an electrolyte, an essential mineral that carries an electric charge when dissolved in a liquid and aids in control of muscle and nerve activity. “Serum potassium” refers to the amount of potassium in the blood.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">serum potassium</a>.<a href="#ref-4" id="ref-link-4" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Francesco P Cappuccio, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27566636" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials on the effects of potassium supplements on serum potassium and creatinine
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;BMJ Open (2016 Aug 26)&lt;/div&gt;'>[4]</a> Therefore, generally, supplementation with potassium is unlikely to cause hyperkalemia. Furthermore, in potassium supplementation studies, adverse effects are uncommon and biomarkers of renal function (urinary and serum sodium and creatinine) are typically unaffected.<a href="#ref-4" id="ref-link-4" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Francesco P Cappuccio, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27566636" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials on the effects of potassium supplements on serum potassium and creatinine
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;BMJ Open (2016 Aug 26)&lt;/div&gt;'>[4]</a> 
While supplementation with potassium salts (e.g. potassium chloride) can improve (i.e., lower) blood pressure,<a href="#ref-18" id="ref-link-18" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Braschi A, Naismith DJ. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18053306" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;The effect of a dietary supplement of potassium chloride or potassium citrate on blood pressure in predominantly normotensive volunteers.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Br J Nutr (2008-Jun)&lt;/div&gt;'>[18]</a><a href="#ref-19" id="ref-link-19" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Feng J He, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15723964" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Effect of short-term supplementation of potassium chloride and potassium citrate on blood pressure in hypertensives
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Hypertension (2005 Apr)&lt;/div&gt;'>[19]</a><a href="#ref-20" id="ref-link-20" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;S R Smith, P E Klotman, L P Svetkey. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1627756" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium chloride lowers blood pressure and causes natriuresis in older patients with hypertension
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Am Soc Nephrol (1992 Feb)&lt;/div&gt;'>[20]</a><a href="#ref-22" id="ref-link-22" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Jalal Poorolajal, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28419159" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Oral potassium supplementation for management of essential hypertension: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;PLoS One (2017 Apr 18)&lt;/div&gt;'>[22]</a><a href="#ref-23" id="ref-link-23" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Filippini T, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28024910" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;The effect of potassium supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Int J Cardiol (2017-Mar-01)&lt;/div&gt;'>[23]</a> some evidence shows that very high doses might increase blood pressure.<a href="#ref-24" id="ref-link-24" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Filippini T, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32500831" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium Intake and Blood Pressure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Am Heart Assoc (2020-06-16)&lt;/div&gt;'>[24]</a> Consequently, if you use a potassium salt to treat <a href="/conditions/high-blood-pressure/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;High Blood Pressure&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;High blood pressure is when the force of your blood pushing against the walls of the arteries is consistently too high. High blood pressure is often caused by an unhealthy lifestyle, although it can result from other medical conditions as well.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">high blood pressure</a>, always use the dose recommended by your doctor.

What are potassium’s main drawbacks?

Muscle cramps are a complicated phenomenon that are associated with several factors: dehydration, glycogen depletion, overexertion, fatigue, hyperthermia, etc. For more information, see <a href="https://examine.com/conditions/muscle-cramps/#what-causes-muscle-cramps">What causes muscle cramps?</a>.
While electrolyte (potassium and sodium) depletion in the blood can trigger muscle cramps, cramps can also happen with normal levels of electrolytes. Furthermore, because blood concentrations of potassium do not typically differ between people who experience cramps during exercise and people who do not,<a href="#ref-50" id="ref-link-50" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Murray D, Miller KC, Edwards JE. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25945453" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Does a Reduction in Serum Sodium Concentration or Serum Potassium Concentration Increase the Prevalence of Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramps?
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Sport Rehabil (2016-Aug)&lt;/div&gt;'>[50]</a> the current evidence shows that low blood potassium is unlikely to cause exercise-associated muscle cramps.

Does low blood potassium cause exercise-associated muscle cramps?

Everyone has heard that athletes eat bananas because they’re high in potassium and prevent muscle cramps; but is that true?
One ripe uncooked banana (1 serving; 115 grams) contains approximately 375 mg of potassium.<a href="#ref-51" id="ref-link-51" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;&lt;a href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/1105314/nutrients" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;FoodData Central: Bananas, ripe and slightly ripe, raw; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; updated 1 Apr 2020; cited Feb 2024
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;(2020 April)&lt;/div&gt;'>[51]</a> However, several foods contain potassium in similar or greater quantities than bananas: meat (pork, beef, and poultry), potatoes, collards, beans, watermelon.<a href="#ref-52" id="ref-link-52" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;&lt;a href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/?component=1092" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;FoodData Central Search Results for Potassium; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; updated 1 April 2020; cited Feb 2024
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;(2020 April)&lt;/div&gt;'>[52]</a> 
Eating bananas post-exercise may not increase the potassium in your blood in any meaningful way. One small <a href="/glossary/randomized-controlled-trial/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Randomized controlled trial&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for determining whether an intervention actually causes any effects. The use of randomization and control groups helps eliminate the effects of factors other than the treatment being studied.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">randomized controlled trial</a> asked 9 men to complete 60 minutes of exercise in the heat and then eat 0, 150, or 300 grams of bananas. The participants followed the exercise-and-banana protocol 3 times, on 3 different days, eating a different quantity of bananas each time. The study found that eating up to 300 grams of bananas caused a very small, but clinically meaningless, increase in plasma potassium concentration, 30 to 60 minutes after eating the bananas.<a href="#ref-53" id="ref-link-53" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Miller KC. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23182013" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Plasma potassium concentration and content changes after banana ingestion in exercised men.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Athl Train (2012)&lt;/div&gt;'>[53]</a> These results show that eating bananas is unlikely to treat or prevent a muscle cramp that is caused by potassium depletion. However, larger high-quality trials are needed to fully understand the role of potassium in muscle cramps and how to prevent/treat them.

Are bananas high in potassium?

The potassium concentration in the blood is primarily regulated by the kidneys, where potassium channels (protein structures that pass potassium ions across cell membranes) in the cells of the distal tubules regulate potassium excretion in the urine.<a href="#ref-40" id="ref-link-40" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Palygin O, Pochynyuk O, Staruschenko A. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29894319" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Distal tubule basolateral potassium channels: cellular and molecular mechanisms of regulation.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens (2018 Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[40]</a><a href="#ref-5" id="ref-link-5" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Adv Physiol Educ (2016-Dec)&lt;/div&gt;'>[5]</a><a href="#ref-6" id="ref-link-6" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kettritz R, Loffing J. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Pharmacol Ther (2023-Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[6]</a> Distribution of potassium within the body’s tissues is regulated by <a href="/outcomes/insulin/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Insulin&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Insulin is a hormone that rises when blood glucose rises. It lowers blood glucose by telling cells to absorb and use it. If your cells’ insulin sensitivity is low, they won’t absorb enough glucose — you have insulin resistance, which can lead to type 2 diabetes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">insulin</a>, catecholamines (e.g., <a href="/outcomes/noradrenaline/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Noradrenaline&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Noradrenaline is a catecholamine involved in the flight or fight response, and has a fairly important role as a neurotransmitter in the body. Elevations of serum noradrenline are thought to reflect increases in cerebral noradrenaline.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">noradrenaline</a> and <a href="/outcomes/adrenaline/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Adrenaline&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Adrenaline is a catecholamine that mediates the 'fight or flight' response, and also possesses fat burning properties. Increases in serum adrenaline are known to improve focus and fat oxidation, and supplements that increase adrenaline are thought to retain these effects.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">adrenaline</a>), and <a href="/outcomes/aldosterone/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Aldosterone&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Aldosterone is a steroid hormone synthesized in the adrenal cortex. It primarily acts on the kidneys to favor sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion, thus influencing blood pressure and water balance. It's also involved in maintaining acid-base balance.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">aldosterone</a>.<a href="#ref-5" id="ref-link-5" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Adv Physiol Educ (2016-Dec)&lt;/div&gt;'>[5]</a><a href="#ref-6" id="ref-link-6" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kettritz R, Loffing J. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Pharmacol Ther (2023-Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[6]</a> 
There is a steep gradient between the potassium concentration in the blood (i.e., the extracellular potassium concentration: 3.5 to 4.5 millimoles per liter, or mmol/L) and the potassium concentration in the cells (the intracellular concentration: 120 to 140 mmol/L). This gradient is critical for maintaining normal function in every cell in the body because it helps potassium ions constantly cross the cell membrane that separates the blood from the cell, generating a membrane potential. This vitally important membrane potential drives electrical impulses in neurons and contractions in muscle cells.<a href="#ref-5" id="ref-link-5" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Adv Physiol Educ (2016-Dec)&lt;/div&gt;'>[5]</a><a href="#ref-6" id="ref-link-6" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kettritz R, Loffing J. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Pharmacol Ther (2023-Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[6]</a> 
This gradient is maintained by the potassium channels found in cell membranes. One of the most important is the sodium-potassium ATPase pump, which is found in every cell in the body and uses energy — <a href="/glossary/adenosine-triphosphate/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Adenosine Triphosphate&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Adenosine triphosphate&lt;/em&gt; (ATP) is the “energy currency” of all living things. The body creates ATP through the breakdown of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins to supply the energy needed for muscle contraction, nerve conduction, and several other physiological processes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">adenosine triphosphate</a> (ATP) — to maintain the potassium (and sodium) gradient across the cell membrane.<a href="#ref-5" id="ref-link-5" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Adv Physiol Educ (2016-Dec)&lt;/div&gt;'>[5]</a><a href="#ref-6" id="ref-link-6" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kettritz R, Loffing J. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Pharmacol Ther (2023-Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[6]</a> 
The correlation between higher daily dietary potassium intake and a reduced risk of <a href="/conditions/stroke/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Stroke&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A stroke is a medical emergency. If you are experiencing stroke symptoms, call emergency medical services, even if they resolve quickly. This page does not discuss acute treatments for stroke, but rather focuses on mitigating the risk of having a stroke and supporting recovery from a stroke. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">stroke</a> and <a href="/conditions/cardiovascular-disease/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Cardiovascular Disease&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a broad term that refers to various diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Atherosclerotic CVD (ASCVD) is the most common subtype of CVD and causes strokes and heart attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">cardiovascular disease</a><a href="#ref-25" id="ref-link-25" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;mb-3&quot;&gt;D'Elia L, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21371638&quot; target=&quot;\_blank&quot; rel=&quot;noopener noreferrer&quot;&gt;Potassium intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease a meta-analysis of prospective studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Am Coll Cardiol (2011-Mar-08)&lt;/div&gt;">[25]</a><a href="#ref-26" id="ref-link-26" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Marco Vinceti, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27792643" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Meta-Analysis of Potassium Intake and the Risk of Stroke
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;J Am Heart Assoc (2016 Oct 6)&lt;/div&gt;'>[26]</a> <a href="#ref-27" id="ref-link-27" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Fan Y, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37788131" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium status and the risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective observational studies.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr (2023-Oct-03)&lt;/div&gt;'>[27]</a><a href="#ref-28" id="ref-link-28" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Nancy J Aburto, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23558164" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Effect of increased potassium intake on cardiovascular risk factors and disease: systematic review and meta-analyses
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;BMJ (2013 Apr 3)&lt;/div&gt;'>[28]</a> is likely explained by the blood-pressure-lowering effect of potassium.<a href="#ref-22" id="ref-link-22" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Jalal Poorolajal, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28419159" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Oral potassium supplementation for management of essential hypertension: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;PLoS One (2017 Apr 18)&lt;/div&gt;'>[22]</a><a href="#ref-23" id="ref-link-23" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Filippini T, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28024910" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;The effect of potassium supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Int J Cardiol (2017-Mar-01)&lt;/div&gt;'>[23]</a> While some evidence shows that potassium intake causes natriuresis — increased sodium excretion in the urine — and reduces vascular resistance,<a href="#ref-6" id="ref-link-6" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Kettritz R, Loffing J. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Pharmacol Ther (2023-Sep)&lt;/div&gt;'>[6]</a><a href="#ref-22" id="ref-link-22" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Jalal Poorolajal, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28419159" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Oral potassium supplementation for management of essential hypertension: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;PLoS One (2017 Apr 18)&lt;/div&gt;'>[22]</a><a href="#ref-41" id="ref-link-41" class="ref-link popover" data-tooltip='&lt;div&gt;&lt;p class="mb-3"&gt;Buemi M, et al. &lt;a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12111752" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;Diet and arterial hypertension: is the sodium ion alone important?
&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;Med Res Rev (2002 Jul)&lt;/div&gt;'>[41]</a> it is not precisely understood how supplementation with potassium lowers blood pressure.

How does potassium work?

Potassium

Cardiovascular Health

Global mean potassium intake: a systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis.

Potassium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals; USA: National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS); last updated June 2022; cited February 2024

Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials on the effects of potassium supplements on serum potassium and creatinine

Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.

Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.

Potassium intake: the Cinderella electrolyte.

Chronic kidney disease.

Diabetic ketoacidosis.

Acute and Chronic Cardiovascular Effects of Hyperkalemia: New Insights Into Prevention and Clinical Management.

The cardiovascular implications of hypokalemia.

Low serum potassium levels are associated with the risk of atrial fibrillation.

Association between serum potassium and risk of all-cause mortality among chronic kidney diseases patients: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of more than one million participants.

Serum potassium levels and mortality of patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies.

Association of Abnormal Serum Potassium Levels with Arrhythmias and Cardiovascular Mortality: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.

Association of serum potassium concentration with mortality and ventricular arrhythmias in patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Potassium levels and the risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality among patients with cardiovascular diseases: a meta-analysis of cohort studies.

The effect of a dietary supplement of potassium chloride or potassium citrate on blood pressure in predominantly normotensive volunteers.

Effect of short-term supplementation of potassium chloride and potassium citrate on blood pressure in hypertensives

Potassium chloride lowers blood pressure and causes natriuresis in older patients with hypertension

Potassium supplementation for the management of primary hypertension in adults

Oral potassium supplementation for management of essential hypertension: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

The effect of potassium supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Potassium Intake and Blood Pressure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

Potassium intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease a meta-analysis of prospective studies.

Meta-Analysis of Potassium Intake and the Risk of Stroke

Potassium status and the risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective observational studies.

Effect of increased potassium intake on cardiovascular risk factors and disease: systematic review and meta-analyses

Dietary potassium intake is beneficial to bone health in a low calcium intake population: the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) (2008-2011).

The association of potassium intake with bone mineral density and the prevalence of osteoporosis among older Korean adults.

POTASSIUM CITRATE DECREASES BONE RESORPTION IN POSTMENOPAUSAL WOMEN WITH OSTEOPENIA: A RANDOMIZED, DOUBLE-BLIND CLINICAL TRIAL.

Potassium Citrate Supplementation Decreases the Biochemical Markers of Bone Loss in a Group of Osteopenic Women: The Results of a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Pilot Study.

The effect of supplementation with alkaline potassium salts on bone metabolism: a meta-analysis

Potassium Bicarbonate Supplementation Lowers Bone Turnover and Calcium Excretion in Older Men and Women: A Randomized Dose-Finding Trial.

Cardiac arrest due to oral potassium intake.

Hyperkalemia due to salt substitutes.

Danger of salt substitutes that contain potassium in patients with renal failure

Severe hyperkalaemia due to the concomitant use of salt substitutes and ACE inhibitors in hypertension: a potentially life threatening interaction

Fatal hyperkalemia from accidental overdose of potassium chloride.

Distal tubule basolateral potassium channels: cellular and molecular mechanisms of regulation.

Diet and arterial hypertension: is the sodium ion alone important?

Effect of Salt Substitution on Cardiovascular Events and Death

Effectiveness of salt substitute on cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Effects of a reduced-sodium added-potassium salt substitute on blood pressure in rural Indian hypertensive patients: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial.

Intake of low sodium salt substitute for 3years attenuates the increase in blood pressure in a rural population of North China - A randomized controlled trial.

Using a low-sodium, high-potassium salt substitute to reduce blood pressure among Tibetans with high blood pressure: a patient-blinded randomized controlled trial.

Long-Term Effect of Salt Substitute on All-Cause and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality: An Exploratory Follow-Up of a Randomized Controlled Trial

Update on management of hypokalaemia and goals for the lower potassium level in patients with cardiovascular disease: a review in collaboration with the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapy

Hypokalemia: a clinical update.

Does a Reduction in Serum Sodium Concentration or Serum Potassium Concentration Increase the Prevalence of Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramps?

FoodData Central: Bananas, ripe and slightly ripe, raw; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; updated 1 Apr 2020; cited Feb 2024

FoodData Central Search Results for Potassium; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; updated 1 April 2020; cited Feb 2024

Plasma potassium concentration and content changes after banana ingestion in exercised men.

Nick Milazzo

Conni Covington

Natalka Roshak

Thomas M.B. Reichhart

Thomas Solomon

High Blood Pressure

Blood Pressure

Bone Health

Calcium Excretion

Net Acid Excretion

Bone Mineral Density

Potassium deficiency can lead to hypokalemia — low blood potassium, less than 3.5 millimoles per liter of blood (mmol/L) — which can cause a variety of signs and symptoms, including tiredness, loss of focus, loss of appetite, vomiting, and muscle weakness.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725|title=Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.|published=2016-Dec|authors=Palmer BF, Clegg DJ|journal=Adv Physiol Educ|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33956964|title=Update on management of hypokalaemia and goals for the lower potassium level in patients with cardiovascular disease: a review in collaboration with the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapy|published=2021 Nov 3|authors=Maria Lukács Krogager, Kristian Kragholm, Jesper Qvist Thomassen, Peter Søgaard, Basil S Lewis, Sven Wassmann, Iris Baumgartner, Claudio Ceconi, Thomas Andersen Schmidt, Juan Carlos Kaski, Heinz Drexel, Anne Grete Semb, Stefan Agewall, Alexander Niessner, Gianluigi Savarese, Keld Per Kjeldsen, Claudio Borghi, Juan Tamargo, Christian Torp-Pedersen|journal=Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Pharmacother|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29540487|title=Hypokalemia: a clinical update.|published=2018-Apr|authors=Kardalas E, Paschou SA, Anagnostis P, Muscogiuri G, Siasos G, Vryonidou A|journal=Endocr Connect|] In more serious cases, hypokalemia can also lead to heart arrhythmias, including <a href="/conditions/atrial-fibrillation/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Atrial Fibrillation&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Atrial fibrillation&lt;/em&gt; (AF) is the most common type of arrhythmia: a problem with the speed or rhythm of the heartbeat. AF can cause chest pain, dizziness, and fatigue. It also increases the risk of stroke.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">atrial fibrillation</a>),[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33956964|title=Update on management of hypokalaemia and goals for the lower potassium level in patients with cardiovascular disease: a review in collaboration with the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapy|published=2021 Nov 3|authors=Maria Lukács Krogager, Kristian Kragholm, Jesper Qvist Thomassen, Peter Søgaard, Basil S Lewis, Sven Wassmann, Iris Baumgartner, Claudio Ceconi, Thomas Andersen Schmidt, Juan Carlos Kaski, Heinz Drexel, Anne Grete Semb, Stefan Agewall, Alexander Niessner, Gianluigi Savarese, Keld Per Kjeldsen, Claudio Borghi, Juan Tamargo, Christian Torp-Pedersen|journal=Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Pharmacother|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29540487|title=Hypokalemia: a clinical update.|published=2018-Apr|authors=Kardalas E, Paschou SA, Anagnostis P, Muscogiuri G, Siasos G, Vryonidou A|journal=Endocr Connect|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15685500|title=The cardiovascular implications of hypokalemia.|published=2005 Feb|authors=Coca SG, Perazella MA, Buller GK|journal=Am J Kidney Dis|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34532036|title=Association between serum potassium and risk of all-cause mortality among chronic kidney diseases patients: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of more than one million participants.|published=2021 Sep|authors=Sorraya N, Farrokhzad A, Hassani B, Talebi S|journal=Food Sci Nutr|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32723154|title=Low serum potassium levels are associated with the risk of atrial fibrillation.|published=2021 Oct|authors=Farah R, Nassar M, Aboraya B, Nseir W|journal=Acta Cardiol|] and is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular-related mortality.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31060369|title=Serum potassium levels and mortality of patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies.|published=2019 Jan|authors=Xi H, Yu RH, Wang N, Chen XZ, Zhang WC, Hong T|journal=Eur J Prev Cardiol|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29679302|title=Association of Abnormal Serum Potassium Levels with Arrhythmias and Cardiovascular Mortality: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.|published=2018 Apr|authors=Hoppe LK, Muhlack DC, Koenig W, Carr PR, Brenner H, Schöttker B|journal=Cardiovasc Drugs Ther|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38195532|title=Potassium levels and the risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality among patients with cardiovascular diseases: a meta-analysis of cohort studies.|published=2024 Jan 10|authors=Fan Y, Wu M, Li X, Zhao J, Shi J, Ding L, Jiang H, Li Z, Zhang W, Ma T, Wang D, Ma L|journal=Nutr J|]

Potassium, an element essential for maintaining normal cellular function in the body, regulates electrolyte balance, <a href="/outcomes/blood-pressure/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Blood Pressure&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Blood pressure is the force that blood exerts on blood vessels as it circulates. &lt;em&gt;High&lt;/em&gt; blood pressure (&lt;em&gt;hyper&lt;/em&gt;tension) and &lt;em&gt;low&lt;/em&gt; blood pressure (&lt;em&gt;hypo&lt;/em&gt;tension) can each lead to a variety of health issues.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">blood pressure</a>, and electrical impulses in nerves and muscle cells.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725|title=Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.|published=2016-Dec|authors=Palmer BF, Clegg DJ|journal=Adv Physiol Educ|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737|title=Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.|published=2023-Sep|authors=Kettritz R, Loffing J|journal=Pharmacol Ther|] The latter is crucial for maintaining contractile function in muscles, including the heart. 
Potassium is obtained in the diet and is found in many foods, including fruits, vegetables, legumes, meat, and animal products (milk, yogurt, etc.).[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844154|title=|published=2019 Mar 5|authors=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium, Oria M, Harrison M, Stallings VA|journal=Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium|][reference|url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Potassium-HealthProfessional/|title=Potassium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals; USA: National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS); last updated June 2022; cited February 2024|published=2022 June] In the USA, the adequate intake (AI) for potassium — the amount assumed to ensure nutritional adequacy — in adults without known health conditions is 3,400 mg/day in males and 2,600 mg/day in females, but the AI changes with age and during pregnancy (see the <a href="#dosage-information">Dosage Information</a> section).[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844154|title=|published=2019 Mar 5|authors=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium, Oria M, Harrison M, Stallings VA|journal=Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium|][reference|url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Potassium-HealthProfessional/|title=Potassium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals; USA: National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS); last updated June 2022; cited February 2024|published=2022 June]
The potassium concentration in the blood is tightly regulated within a range of 3.5 to 4.5 millimoles per liter of blood (mmol/L).[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725|title=Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.|published=2016-Dec|authors=Palmer BF, Clegg DJ|journal=Adv Physiol Educ|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37936275|title=Potassium intake: the Cinderella electrolyte.|published=2023-Dec-14|authors=O'Donnell M, Yusuf S, Vogt L, Mente A, Messerli FH|journal=Eur Heart J|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737|title=Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.|published=2023-Sep|authors=Kettritz R, Loffing J|journal=Pharmacol Ther|] Several factors can push blood potassium concentrations outside this range. These include dietary potassium intake, some drugs (e.g., <a href="/outcomes/insulin/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Insulin&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Insulin is a hormone that rises when blood glucose rises. It lowers blood glucose by telling cells to absorb and use it. If your cells’ insulin sensitivity is low, they won’t absorb enough glucose — you have insulin resistance, which can lead to type 2 diabetes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">insulin</a>, <a href="https://www.drugs.com/mca/diuretics">diuretics</a>, and <a href="https://www.drugs.com/drug-class/phosphate-binders.html">potassium binders</a>), and certain clinical conditions (e.g., <a href="/conditions/chronic-kidney-disease/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Chronic Kidney Disease&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a degenerative disease of the kidneys. In addition to medication, CKD is managed nutritionally with diets that modify the intake of specific nutrients affected by impaired kidney function.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">chronic kidney disease</a> and diabetic ketoacidosis).[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725|title=Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.|published=2016-Dec|authors=Palmer BF, Clegg DJ|journal=Adv Physiol Educ|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37936275|title=Potassium intake: the Cinderella electrolyte.|published=2023-Dec-14|authors=O'Donnell M, Yusuf S, Vogt L, Mente A, Messerli FH|journal=Eur Heart J|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737|title=Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.|published=2023-Sep|authors=Kettritz R, Loffing J|journal=Pharmacol Ther|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29168475|title=Chronic kidney disease.|published=2017-Nov-23|authors=Romagnani P, Remuzzi G, Glassock R, Levin A, Jager KJ, Tonelli M, Massy Z, Wanner C, Anders HJ|journal=Nat Rev Dis Primers|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32409703|title=Diabetic ketoacidosis.|published=2020-May-14|authors=Dhatariya KK, Glaser NS, Codner E, Umpierrez GE|journal=Nat Rev Dis Primers|] Blood potassium concentrations outside the healthy reference range — hyperkalemia (high blood potassium[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27725623|title=Acute and Chronic Cardiovascular Effects of Hyperkalemia: New Insights Into Prevention and Clinical Management.|published=2016|authors=Krishnan SK, Lepor NE|journal=Rev Cardiovasc Med|]) and hypokalemia (low blood potassium[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15685500|title=The cardiovascular implications of hypokalemia.|published=2005 Feb|authors=Coca SG, Perazella MA, Buller GK|journal=Am J Kidney Dis|]) — are problematic because they’re associated with an increased risk of heart problems (e.g., heart arrhythmias) or dying from a cardiovascular event.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32723154|title=Low serum potassium levels are associated with the risk of atrial fibrillation.|published=2021 Oct|authors=Farah R, Nassar M, Aboraya B, Nseir W|journal=Acta Cardiol|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34532036|title=Association between serum potassium and risk of all-cause mortality among chronic kidney diseases patients: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of more than one million participants.|published=2021 Sep|authors=Sorraya N, Farrokhzad A, Hassani B, Talebi S|journal=Food Sci Nutr|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31060369|title=Serum potassium levels and mortality of patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies.|published=2019 Jan|authors=Xi H, Yu RH, Wang N, Chen XZ, Zhang WC, Hong T|journal=Eur J Prev Cardiol|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29679302|title=Association of Abnormal Serum Potassium Levels with Arrhythmias and Cardiovascular Mortality: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.|published=2018 Apr|authors=Hoppe LK, Muhlack DC, Koenig W, Carr PR, Brenner H, Schöttker B|journal=Cardiovasc Drugs Ther|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29473462|title=Association of serum potassium concentration with mortality and ventricular arrhythmias in patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|published=2018 Apr|authors=Colombo MG, Kirchberger I, Amann U, Dinser L, Meisinger C|journal=Eur J Prev Cardiol|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38195532|title=Potassium levels and the risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality among patients with cardiovascular diseases: a meta-analysis of cohort studies.|published=2024 Jan 10|authors=Fan Y, Wu M, Li X, Zhao J, Shi J, Ding L, Jiang H, Li Z, Zhang W, Ma T, Wang D, Ma L|journal=Nutr J|]

<input id="sidebar-662af505ef746" type="checkbox" class="peer hidden">
<div class="sidebar bg-red">
<label for="sidebar-662af505ef746">
<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewbox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor">
<path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M14.77 12.79a.75.75 0 01-1.06-.02L10 8.832 6.29 12.77a.75.75 0 11-1.08-1.04l4.25-4.5a.75.75 0 011.08 0l4.25 4.5a.75.75 0 01-.02 1.06z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path>
</svg>
</label>
<h1>⚠️ Caution: High blood pressure should be managed by your doctor.</h1>
Blood pressure lowering medications, <a href="/diets/sodium-restriction/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Sodium Restriction&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sodium restriction describes the reduction of dietary sodium. This is usually done to manage high blood pressure, which is a condition that can increase your risk for cardiovascular events (i.e., stroke and heart attack). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">sodium restriction</a> diets, and reduced-sodium added-potassium salt substitutes are used to treat hypertension, but should be used under the direction of your doctor.
</div>
A reduced-sodium added-potassium salt substitute is sometimes used to supplement a <a href="/diets/sodium-restriction/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Sodium Restriction&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sodium restriction describes the reduction of dietary sodium. This is usually done to manage high blood pressure, which is a condition that can increase your risk for cardiovascular events (i.e., stroke and heart attack). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">sodium-restricted</a> (reduced salt) diet to help treat <a href="/conditions/high-blood-pressure/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;High Blood Pressure&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;High blood pressure is when the force of your blood pushing against the walls of the arteries is consistently too high. High blood pressure is often caused by an unhealthy lifestyle, although it can result from other medical conditions as well.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">hypertension</a>. Such salt substitutes typically contain a reduced amount of sodium chloride and an added amount of potassium chloride, and <a href="/glossary/randomized-controlled-trial/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Randomized controlled trial&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for determining whether an intervention actually causes any effects. The use of randomization and control groups helps eliminate the effects of factors other than the treatment being studied.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">randomized controlled trials</a> show that they can effectively reduce blood pressure.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34459569|title=Effect of Salt Substitution on Cardiovascular Events and Death|published=2021 Sep 16|authors=Bruce Neal, Yangfeng Wu, Xiangxian Feng, Ruijuan Zhang, Yuhong Zhang, Jingpu Shi, Jianxin Zhang, Maoyi Tian, Liping Huang, Zhifang Li, Yan Yu, Yi Zhao, Bo Zhou, Jixin Sun, Yishu Liu, Xuejun Yin, Zhixin Hao, Jie Yu, Ka-Chun Li, Xinyi Zhang, Peifen Duan, Faxuan Wang, Bing Ma, Weiwei Shi, Gian Luca Di Tanna, Sandrine Stepien, Sana Shan, Sallie-Anne Pearson, Nicole Li, Lijing L Yan, Darwin Labarthe, Paul Elliott|journal=N Engl J Med|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36196475|title=Effectiveness of salt substitute on cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|published=2022-Sep|authors=Tsai YC, Tsao YP, Huang CJ, Tai YH, Su YC, Chiang CE, Sung SH, Chen CH, Cheng HM|journal=J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich)|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33782684|title=Effects of a reduced-sodium added-potassium salt substitute on blood pressure in rural Indian hypertensive patients: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial.|published=2021 Jul 1|authors=Yu J, Thout SR, Li Q, Tian M, Marklund M, Arnott C, Huffman MD, Praveen D, Johnson C, Huang L, Pettigrew S, Neal B, Wu JHY|journal=Am J Clin Nutr|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27128565|title=Intake of low sodium salt substitute for 3years attenuates the increase in blood pressure in a rural population of North China - A randomized controlled trial.|published=2016 Jul 15|authors=Zhou B, Webster J, Fu LY, Wang HL, Wu XM, Wang WL, Shi JP|journal=Int J Cardiol|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25338053|title=Using a low-sodium, high-potassium salt substitute to reduce blood pressure among Tibetans with high blood pressure: a patient-blinded randomized controlled trial.|published=2014|authors=Zhao X, Yin X, Li X, Yan LL, Lam CT, Li S, He F, Xie W, Sang B, Luobu G, Ke L, Wu Y|journal=PLoS One|] However, this does not mean that more is better — some evidence shows that supplementation with potassium salts in high doses might increase blood pressure.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32500831|title=Potassium Intake and Blood Pressure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.|published=2020-06-16|authors=Filippini T, Naska A, Kasdagli MI, Torres D, Lopes C, Carvalho C, Moreira P, Malavolti M, Orsini N, Whelton PK, Vinceti M|journal=J Am Heart Assoc|] 
Because <a href="/conditions/high-blood-pressure/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;High Blood Pressure&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;High blood pressure is when the force of your blood pushing against the walls of the arteries is consistently too high. High blood pressure is often caused by an unhealthy lifestyle, although it can result from other medical conditions as well.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">high blood pressure</a> increases the risk of <a href="/conditions/cardiovascular-disease/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Cardiovascular Disease&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a broad term that refers to various diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Atherosclerotic CVD (ASCVD) is the most common subtype of CVD and causes strokes and heart attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">cardiovascular disease</a> and <a href="/conditions/stroke/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Stroke&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A stroke is a medical emergency. If you are experiencing stroke symptoms, call emergency medical services, even if they resolve quickly. This page does not discuss acute treatments for stroke, but rather focuses on mitigating the risk of having a stroke and supporting recovery from a stroke. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">stroke</a>-related mortality, it is possible that the blood-pressure-lowering effect of a reduced-sodium added-potassium salt substitute could reduce mortality risk. Some current evidence supports this hypothesis,[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34459569|title=Effect of Salt Substitution on Cardiovascular Events and Death|published=2021 Sep 16|authors=Bruce Neal, Yangfeng Wu, Xiangxian Feng, Ruijuan Zhang, Yuhong Zhang, Jingpu Shi, Jianxin Zhang, Maoyi Tian, Liping Huang, Zhifang Li, Yan Yu, Yi Zhao, Bo Zhou, Jixin Sun, Yishu Liu, Xuejun Yin, Zhixin Hao, Jie Yu, Ka-Chun Li, Xinyi Zhang, Peifen Duan, Faxuan Wang, Bing Ma, Weiwei Shi, Gian Luca Di Tanna, Sandrine Stepien, Sana Shan, Sallie-Anne Pearson, Nicole Li, Lijing L Yan, Darwin Labarthe, Paul Elliott|journal=N Engl J Med|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36196475|title=Effectiveness of salt substitute on cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|published=2022-Sep|authors=Tsai YC, Tsao YP, Huang CJ, Tai YH, Su YC, Chiang CE, Sung SH, Chen CH, Cheng HM|journal=J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich)|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34079827|title=Long-Term Effect of Salt Substitute on All-Cause and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality: An Exploratory Follow-Up of a Randomized Controlled Trial|published=2021 May 17|authors=Hao Sun, Bing Ma, Xiaomei Wu, Hailong Wang, Bo Zhou|journal=Front Cardiovasc Med|] but due to the dearth of studies and the large between-study variability, further long-term high-quality <a href="/glossary/observational-study/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Observational study&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;An observational study is designed to find a relationship between natural exposures and outcomes. There are no intentional interventions by researchers in observational studies and a cause-and-effect relationship usually cannot be determined.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">observational studies</a> and <a href="/glossary/randomized-controlled-trial/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Randomized controlled trial&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for determining whether an intervention actually causes any effects. The use of randomization and control groups helps eliminate the effects of factors other than the treatment being studied.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">randomized controlled trials</a> are needed to make firm conclusions.

Some studies have shown that short-term daily supplementation with a potassium salt (e.g., potassium chloride or potassium citrate) can lower <a href="/outcomes/blood-pressure/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Blood Pressure&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Blood pressure is the force that blood exerts on blood vessels as it circulates. &lt;em&gt;High&lt;/em&gt; blood pressure (&lt;em&gt;hyper&lt;/em&gt;tension) and &lt;em&gt;low&lt;/em&gt; blood pressure (&lt;em&gt;hypo&lt;/em&gt;tension) can each lead to a variety of health issues.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">blood pressure</a> in adults without known health conditions[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18053306|title=The effect of a dietary supplement of potassium chloride or potassium citrate on blood pressure in predominantly normotensive volunteers.|published=2008-Jun|authors=Braschi A, Naismith DJ|journal=Br J Nutr|] and in people with hypertension.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15723964|title=Effect of short-term supplementation of potassium chloride and potassium citrate on blood pressure in hypertensives|published=2005 Apr|authors=Feng J He, Nirmala D Markandu, Rosemary Coltart, Jeffrey Barron, Graham A MacGregor|journal=Hypertension|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1627756|title=Potassium chloride lowers blood pressure and causes natriuresis in older patients with hypertension|published=1992 Feb|authors=S R Smith, P E Klotman, L P Svetkey|journal=J Am Soc Nephrol|] While early systematic reviews and <a href="/glossary/meta-analysis/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Meta-analysis&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A meta-analysis is usually produced as part of a systematic review. It combines the numerical results from several studies into an average number. Studies that differ too much in design cannot be properly meta-analyzed.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">meta-analyses</a> found that the evidence was mixed and that there was large variability in effects between studies,[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16856053|title=Potassium supplementation for the management of primary hypertension in adults|published=2006 Jul 19|authors=H O Dickinson, D J Nicolson, F Campbell, F R Beyer, J Mason|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|] it now appears that supplementation with a potassium salt can cause a moderate and meaningful effect to lower blood pressure.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28419159|title=Oral potassium supplementation for management of essential hypertension: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|published=2017 Apr 18|authors=Jalal Poorolajal, Fatemeh Zeraati, Ali Reza Soltanian, Vida Sheikh, Elham Hooshmand, Akram Maleki|journal=PLoS One|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28024910|title=The effect of potassium supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|published=2017-Mar-01|authors=Filippini T, Violi F, D'Amico R, Vinceti M|journal=Int J Cardiol|] However, the blood-pressure-lowering effect of potassium is likely to be greatest in people with lower potassium intake at baseline, higher sodium intake at baseline, or in people who don’t use a blood-pressure-lowering medication.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28024910|title=The effect of potassium supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|published=2017-Mar-01|authors=Filippini T, Violi F, D'Amico R, Vinceti M|journal=Int J Cardiol|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32500831|title=Potassium Intake and Blood Pressure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.|published=2020-06-16|authors=Filippini T, Naska A, Kasdagli MI, Torres D, Lopes C, Carvalho C, Moreira P, Malavolti M, Orsini N, Whelton PK, Vinceti M|journal=J Am Heart Assoc|]
<a href="/glossary/observational-study/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Observational study&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;An observational study is designed to find a relationship between natural exposures and outcomes. There are no intentional interventions by researchers in observational studies and a cause-and-effect relationship usually cannot be determined.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">Observational studies</a> find a correlation between higher levels of daily dietary potassium intake and a reduced risk of <a href="/conditions/stroke/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Stroke&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A stroke is a medical emergency. If you are experiencing stroke symptoms, call emergency medical services, even if they resolve quickly. This page does not discuss acute treatments for stroke, but rather focuses on mitigating the risk of having a stroke and supporting recovery from a stroke. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">stroke</a> and <a href="/conditions/cardiovascular-disease/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Cardiovascular Disease&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a broad term that refers to various diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Atherosclerotic CVD (ASCVD) is the most common subtype of CVD and causes strokes and heart attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">cardiovascular disease</a>.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21371638|title=Potassium intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease a meta-analysis of prospective studies.|published=2011-Mar-08|authors=D'Elia L, Barba G, Cappuccio FP, Strazzullo P|journal=J Am Coll Cardiol|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27792643|title=Meta-Analysis of Potassium Intake and the Risk of Stroke|published=2016 Oct 6|authors=Marco Vinceti, Tommaso Filippini, Alessio Crippa, Agnès de Sesmaisons, Lauren A Wise, Nicola Orsini|journal=J Am Heart Assoc|] [reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37788131|title=Potassium status and the risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective observational studies.|published=2023-Oct-03|authors=Fan Y, Wu M, Ding L, Ji H, Zhao J, Li X, Li Z, Liu S, Jiang H, Shi J, Lei H, Wang M, Wang D, Ma L|journal=Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23558164|title=Effect of increased potassium intake on cardiovascular risk factors and disease: systematic review and meta-analyses|published=2013 Apr 3|authors=Nancy J Aburto, Sara Hanson, Hialy Gutierrez, Lee Hooper, Paul Elliott, Francesco P Cappuccio|journal=BMJ|] However, because these studies estimate dietary potassium intake from food recall questionnaires, the direct protective effect of dietary potassium on cerebrovascular or cardiovascular risk cannot currently be proven.
Observational studies also show an association between higher levels of daily dietary potassium intake and better bone health.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28093633|title=Dietary potassium intake is beneficial to bone health in a low calcium intake population: the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) (2008-2011).|published=2017-May|authors=Kong SH, Kim JH, Hong AR, Lee JH, Kim SW, Shin CS|journal=Osteoporos Int|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32042374|title=The association of potassium intake with bone mineral density and the prevalence of osteoporosis among older Korean adults.|published=2020-Feb|authors=Ha J, Kim SA, Lim K, Shin S|journal=Nutr Res Pract|] Furthermore, <a href="/glossary/randomized-controlled-trial/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Randomized controlled trial&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for determining whether an intervention actually causes any effects. The use of randomization and control groups helps eliminate the effects of factors other than the treatment being studied.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">randomized controlled trials</a> show that supplementation with potassium improves aspects of bone metabolism in postmenopausal women with <a href="/conditions/osteopenia/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Osteopenia&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Osteopenia refers to a decrease in bone mineral density that results in reduced bone strength and an increased risk of broken bones. In osteopenia, bone mineral density is below average, but not severe enough to be considered osteoporosis. Osteopenia occurs naturally with advancing age, but may be aggravated by lifestyle factors (e.g., sedentary lifestyle, poor nutrition), genetics, medication use, or certain disease states.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">osteopenia</a>[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26401577|title=POTASSIUM CITRATE DECREASES BONE RESORPTION IN POSTMENOPAUSAL WOMEN WITH OSTEOPENIA: A RANDOMIZED, DOUBLE-BLIND CLINICAL TRIAL.|published=2015-Dec|authors=Gregory NS, Kumar R, Stein EM, Alexander E, Christos P, Bockman RS, Rodman JS|journal=Endocr Pract|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30213095|title=Potassium Citrate Supplementation Decreases the Biochemical Markers of Bone Loss in a Group of Osteopenic Women: The Results of a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Pilot Study.|published=2018-Sep-12|authors=Granchi D, Caudarella R, Ripamonti C, Spinnato P, Bazzocchi A, Massa A, Baldini N|journal=Nutrients|] and in older adults with <a href="/conditions/osteoporosis/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Osteoporosis&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Osteoporosis is a condition of having weak and brittle bones. The main goal for people with osteoporosis is to prevent bone fractures by strengthening the bones and by avoiding falls.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">osteoporosis</a>.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25572045|title=The effect of supplementation with alkaline potassium salts on bone metabolism: a meta-analysis|published=2015 Apr|authors=H Lambert, L Frassetto, J B Moore, D Torgerson, R Gannon, P Burckhardt, S Lanham-New|journal=Osteoporos Int|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25990255|title=Potassium Bicarbonate Supplementation Lowers Bone Turnover and Calcium Excretion in Older Men and Women: A Randomized Dose-Finding Trial.|published=2015-Nov|authors=Dawson-Hughes B, Harris SS, Palermo NJ, Gilhooly CH, Shea MK, Fielding RA, Ceglia L|journal=J Bone Miner Res|] However, it is currently unclear whether supplementation with potassium prevents bone loss in such people.
Potassium-containing drugs — e.g., <a href="https://www.drugs.com/potassium_chloride.html">potassium chloride</a>, <a href="https://www.drugs.com/mtm/potassium-gluconate.html">potassium gluconate</a>, <a href="https://www.drugs.com/mtm/potassium-bicarbonate.html">potassium bicarbonate</a>, <a href="https://www.drugs.com/cdi/potassium-acetate.html">potassium acetate</a>, etc. — are used to treat low blood potassium (hypokalemia). Other potassium-containing drugs are also used clinically. For example, <a href="https://www.drugs.com/pro/potassium-citrate.html">potassium citrate</a> is used to treat some kidney defects, and <a href="https://www.drugs.com/mtm/potassium-phosphate.html">potassium phosphate</a> is used in the treatment and prevention of low blood phosphorus (hypophosphatemia).

A high blood potassium concentration — hyperkalemia[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27725623|title=Acute and Chronic Cardiovascular Effects of Hyperkalemia: New Insights Into Prevention and Clinical Management.|published=2016|authors=Krishnan SK, Lepor NE|journal=Rev Cardiovasc Med|] — is associated with an increased risk of heart problems (e.g., heart arrhythmias).[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31060369|title=Serum potassium levels and mortality of patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies.|published=2019 Jan|authors=Xi H, Yu RH, Wang N, Chen XZ, Zhang WC, Hong T|journal=Eur J Prev Cardiol|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29679302|title=Association of Abnormal Serum Potassium Levels with Arrhythmias and Cardiovascular Mortality: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.|published=2018 Apr|authors=Hoppe LK, Muhlack DC, Koenig W, Carr PR, Brenner H, Schöttker B|journal=Cardiovasc Drugs Ther|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29473462|title=Association of serum potassium concentration with mortality and ventricular arrhythmias in patients with acute myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|published=2018 Apr|authors=Colombo MG, Kirchberger I, Amann U, Dinser L, Meisinger C|journal=Eur J Prev Cardiol|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38195532|title=Potassium levels and the risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality among patients with cardiovascular diseases: a meta-analysis of cohort studies.|published=2024 Jan 10|authors=Fan Y, Wu M, Li X, Zhao J, Shi J, Ding L, Jiang H, Li Z, Zhang W, Ma T, Wang D, Ma L|journal=Nutr J|] Hyperkalemia-related symptoms have been associated with salt substitutes in several case studies,[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3068270|title=Cardiac arrest due to oral potassium intake.|published=1988|authors=Schim van der Loeff HJ, Strack van Schijndel RJ, Thijs LG|journal=Intensive Care Med|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3747085|title=Hyperkalemia due to salt substitutes.|published=1986-Oct-03|authors=Hoyt RE|journal=JAMA|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12511461|title=Danger of salt substitutes that contain potassium in patients with renal failure|published=2003 Jan 4|authors=C J Doorenbos, C G Vermeij|journal=BMJ|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10516744|title=Severe hyperkalaemia due to the concomitant use of salt substitutes and ACE inhibitors in hypertension: a potentially life threatening interaction|published=1999 Oct|authors=K Ray, S Dorman, R Watson|journal=J Hum Hypertens|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/682320|title=Fatal hyperkalemia from accidental overdose of potassium chloride.|published=1978-Sep-22|authors=Wetli CV, Davis JH|journal=JAMA|] but case studies of individual people only show what is possible rather than what is typical.
In people without known health conditions, <a href="/outcomes/serum-potassium/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Serum Potassium&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Potassium is an electrolyte, an essential mineral that carries an electric charge when dissolved in a liquid and aids in control of muscle and nerve activity. “Serum potassium” refers to the amount of potassium in the blood.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">serum potassium</a> concentrations are between 3.5 and 4.5 millimoles per liter of blood (mmol/L).[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725|title=Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.|published=2016-Dec|authors=Palmer BF, Clegg DJ|journal=Adv Physiol Educ|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37936275|title=Potassium intake: the Cinderella electrolyte.|published=2023-Dec-14|authors=O'Donnell M, Yusuf S, Vogt L, Mente A, Messerli FH|journal=Eur Heart J|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737|title=Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.|published=2023-Sep|authors=Kettritz R, Loffing J|journal=Pharmacol Ther|] A <a href="/glossary/meta-analysis/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Meta-analysis&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A meta-analysis is usually produced as part of a systematic review. It combines the numerical results from several studies into an average number. Studies that differ too much in design cannot be properly meta-analyzed.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">meta-analysis</a> of <a href="/glossary/randomized-controlled-trial/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Randomized controlled trial&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for determining whether an intervention actually causes any effects. The use of randomization and control groups helps eliminate the effects of factors other than the treatment being studied.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">randomized controlled trials</a> found that daily supplementation with potassium chloride in the range of 22 to 140 mmol/day — equivalent to approximately 0.9 to 5.5 grams/day of potassium — caused a <a href="/glossary/statistical-significance/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Statistical significance&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A p-value is statistically significant if it falls below a (somewhat arbitrary) threshold called a significance level, which is traditionally set at 0.05. Statistical significance suggests that the data aren’t explained well by the null hypothesis — the assumption that the intervention (or variable) being studied actually makes no difference to the outcome you’re studying. If the results are statistically significant, you can reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there actually is a difference.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">statistically significant</a> but clinically meaningless increase (+0.14 mmol/L) in <a href="/outcomes/serum-potassium/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Serum Potassium&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Potassium is an electrolyte, an essential mineral that carries an electric charge when dissolved in a liquid and aids in control of muscle and nerve activity. “Serum potassium” refers to the amount of potassium in the blood.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">serum potassium</a>.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27566636|title=Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials on the effects of potassium supplements on serum potassium and creatinine|published=2016 Aug 26|authors=Francesco P Cappuccio, Laura A Buchanan, Chen Ji, Alfonso Siani, Michelle A Miller|journal=BMJ Open|] Therefore, generally, supplementation with potassium is unlikely to cause hyperkalemia. Furthermore, in potassium supplementation studies, adverse effects are uncommon and biomarkers of renal function (urinary and serum sodium and creatinine) are typically unaffected.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27566636|title=Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials on the effects of potassium supplements on serum potassium and creatinine|published=2016 Aug 26|authors=Francesco P Cappuccio, Laura A Buchanan, Chen Ji, Alfonso Siani, Michelle A Miller|journal=BMJ Open|] 
While supplementation with potassium salts (e.g. potassium chloride) can improve (i.e., lower) blood pressure,[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18053306|title=The effect of a dietary supplement of potassium chloride or potassium citrate on blood pressure in predominantly normotensive volunteers.|published=2008-Jun|authors=Braschi A, Naismith DJ|journal=Br J Nutr|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15723964|title=Effect of short-term supplementation of potassium chloride and potassium citrate on blood pressure in hypertensives|published=2005 Apr|authors=Feng J He, Nirmala D Markandu, Rosemary Coltart, Jeffrey Barron, Graham A MacGregor|journal=Hypertension|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1627756|title=Potassium chloride lowers blood pressure and causes natriuresis in older patients with hypertension|published=1992 Feb|authors=S R Smith, P E Klotman, L P Svetkey|journal=J Am Soc Nephrol|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28419159|title=Oral potassium supplementation for management of essential hypertension: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|published=2017 Apr 18|authors=Jalal Poorolajal, Fatemeh Zeraati, Ali Reza Soltanian, Vida Sheikh, Elham Hooshmand, Akram Maleki|journal=PLoS One|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28024910|title=The effect of potassium supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|published=2017-Mar-01|authors=Filippini T, Violi F, D'Amico R, Vinceti M|journal=Int J Cardiol|] some evidence shows that very high doses might increase blood pressure.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32500831|title=Potassium Intake and Blood Pressure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.|published=2020-06-16|authors=Filippini T, Naska A, Kasdagli MI, Torres D, Lopes C, Carvalho C, Moreira P, Malavolti M, Orsini N, Whelton PK, Vinceti M|journal=J Am Heart Assoc|] Consequently, if you use a potassium salt to treat <a href="/conditions/high-blood-pressure/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;High Blood Pressure&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;High blood pressure is when the force of your blood pushing against the walls of the arteries is consistently too high. High blood pressure is often caused by an unhealthy lifestyle, although it can result from other medical conditions as well.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">high blood pressure</a>, always use the dose recommended by your doctor.

Muscle cramps are a complicated phenomenon that are associated with several factors: dehydration, glycogen depletion, overexertion, fatigue, hyperthermia, etc. For more information, see <a href="https://examine.com/conditions/muscle-cramps/#what-causes-muscle-cramps">What causes muscle cramps?</a>.
While electrolyte (potassium and sodium) depletion in the blood can trigger muscle cramps, cramps can also happen with normal levels of electrolytes. Furthermore, because blood concentrations of potassium do not typically differ between people who experience cramps during exercise and people who do not,[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25945453|title=Does a Reduction in Serum Sodium Concentration or Serum Potassium Concentration Increase the Prevalence of Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramps?|published=2016-Aug|authors=Murray D, Miller KC, Edwards JE|journal=J Sport Rehabil|] the current evidence shows that low blood potassium is unlikely to cause exercise-associated muscle cramps.

Everyone has heard that athletes eat bananas because they’re high in potassium and prevent muscle cramps; but is that true?
One ripe uncooked banana (1 serving; 115 grams) contains approximately 375 mg of potassium.[reference|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/1105314/nutrients|title=FoodData Central: Bananas, ripe and slightly ripe, raw; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; updated 1 Apr 2020; cited Feb 2024|published=2020 April] However, several foods contain potassium in similar or greater quantities than bananas: meat (pork, beef, and poultry), potatoes, collards, beans, watermelon.[reference|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/?component=1092|title=FoodData Central Search Results for Potassium; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; updated 1 April 2020; cited Feb 2024|published=2020 April] 
Eating bananas post-exercise may not increase the potassium in your blood in any meaningful way. One small <a href="/glossary/randomized-controlled-trial/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Randomized controlled trial&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the gold standard for determining whether an intervention actually causes any effects. The use of randomization and control groups helps eliminate the effects of factors other than the treatment being studied.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">randomized controlled trial</a> asked 9 men to complete 60 minutes of exercise in the heat and then eat 0, 150, or 300 grams of bananas. The participants followed the exercise-and-banana protocol 3 times, on 3 different days, eating a different quantity of bananas each time. The study found that eating up to 300 grams of bananas caused a very small, but clinically meaningless, increase in plasma potassium concentration, 30 to 60 minutes after eating the bananas.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23182013|title=Plasma potassium concentration and content changes after banana ingestion in exercised men.|published=2012|authors=Miller KC|journal=J Athl Train|] These results show that eating bananas is unlikely to treat or prevent a muscle cramp that is caused by potassium depletion. However, larger high-quality trials are needed to fully understand the role of potassium in muscle cramps and how to prevent/treat them.

The potassium concentration in the blood is primarily regulated by the kidneys, where potassium channels (protein structures that pass potassium ions across cell membranes) in the cells of the distal tubules regulate potassium excretion in the urine.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29894319|title=Distal tubule basolateral potassium channels: cellular and molecular mechanisms of regulation.|published=2018 Sep|authors=Palygin O, Pochynyuk O, Staruschenko A|journal=Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725|title=Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.|published=2016-Dec|authors=Palmer BF, Clegg DJ|journal=Adv Physiol Educ|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737|title=Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.|published=2023-Sep|authors=Kettritz R, Loffing J|journal=Pharmacol Ther|] Distribution of potassium within the body’s tissues is regulated by <a href="/outcomes/insulin/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Insulin&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Insulin is a hormone that rises when blood glucose rises. It lowers blood glucose by telling cells to absorb and use it. If your cells’ insulin sensitivity is low, they won’t absorb enough glucose — you have insulin resistance, which can lead to type 2 diabetes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">insulin</a>, catecholamines (e.g., <a href="/outcomes/noradrenaline/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Noradrenaline&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Noradrenaline is a catecholamine involved in the flight or fight response, and has a fairly important role as a neurotransmitter in the body. Elevations of serum noradrenline are thought to reflect increases in cerebral noradrenaline.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">noradrenaline</a> and <a href="/outcomes/adrenaline/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Adrenaline&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Adrenaline is a catecholamine that mediates the 'fight or flight' response, and also possesses fat burning properties. Increases in serum adrenaline are known to improve focus and fat oxidation, and supplements that increase adrenaline are thought to retain these effects.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">adrenaline</a>), and <a href="/outcomes/aldosterone/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Aldosterone&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Aldosterone is a steroid hormone synthesized in the adrenal cortex. It primarily acts on the kidneys to favor sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion, thus influencing blood pressure and water balance. It's also involved in maintaining acid-base balance.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">aldosterone</a>.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725|title=Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.|published=2016-Dec|authors=Palmer BF, Clegg DJ|journal=Adv Physiol Educ|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737|title=Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.|published=2023-Sep|authors=Kettritz R, Loffing J|journal=Pharmacol Ther|] 
There is a steep gradient between the potassium concentration in the blood (i.e., the extracellular potassium concentration: 3.5 to 4.5 millimoles per liter, or mmol/L) and the potassium concentration in the cells (the intracellular concentration: 120 to 140 mmol/L). This gradient is critical for maintaining normal function in every cell in the body because it helps potassium ions constantly cross the cell membrane that separates the blood from the cell, generating a membrane potential. This vitally important membrane potential drives electrical impulses in neurons and contractions in muscle cells.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725|title=Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.|published=2016-Dec|authors=Palmer BF, Clegg DJ|journal=Adv Physiol Educ|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737|title=Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.|published=2023-Sep|authors=Kettritz R, Loffing J|journal=Pharmacol Ther|] 
This gradient is maintained by the potassium channels found in cell membranes. One of the most important is the sodium-potassium ATPase pump, which is found in every cell in the body and uses energy — <a href="/glossary/adenosine-triphosphate/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Adenosine Triphosphate&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Adenosine triphosphate&lt;/em&gt; (ATP) is the “energy currency” of all living things. The body creates ATP through the breakdown of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins to supply the energy needed for muscle contraction, nerve conduction, and several other physiological processes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">adenosine triphosphate</a> (ATP) — to maintain the potassium (and sodium) gradient across the cell membrane.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756725|title=Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis.|published=2016-Dec|authors=Palmer BF, Clegg DJ|journal=Adv Physiol Educ|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737|title=Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.|published=2023-Sep|authors=Kettritz R, Loffing J|journal=Pharmacol Ther|] 
The correlation between higher daily dietary potassium intake and a reduced risk of <a href="/conditions/stroke/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Stroke&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;A stroke is a medical emergency. If you are experiencing stroke symptoms, call emergency medical services, even if they resolve quickly. This page does not discuss acute treatments for stroke, but rather focuses on mitigating the risk of having a stroke and supporting recovery from a stroke. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">stroke</a> and <a href="/conditions/cardiovascular-disease/" class="popover" data-tooltip="&lt;div&gt;&lt;h6&gt;Cardiovascular Disease&lt;/h6&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a broad term that refers to various diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Atherosclerotic CVD (ASCVD) is the most common subtype of CVD and causes strokes and heart attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;">cardiovascular disease</a>[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21371638|title=Potassium intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease a meta-analysis of prospective studies.|published=2011-Mar-08|authors=D'Elia L, Barba G, Cappuccio FP, Strazzullo P|journal=J Am Coll Cardiol|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27792643|title=Meta-Analysis of Potassium Intake and the Risk of Stroke|published=2016 Oct 6|authors=Marco Vinceti, Tommaso Filippini, Alessio Crippa, Agnès de Sesmaisons, Lauren A Wise, Nicola Orsini|journal=J Am Heart Assoc|] [reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37788131|title=Potassium status and the risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective observational studies.|published=2023-Oct-03|authors=Fan Y, Wu M, Ding L, Ji H, Zhao J, Li X, Li Z, Liu S, Jiang H, Shi J, Lei H, Wang M, Wang D, Ma L|journal=Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23558164|title=Effect of increased potassium intake on cardiovascular risk factors and disease: systematic review and meta-analyses|published=2013 Apr 3|authors=Nancy J Aburto, Sara Hanson, Hialy Gutierrez, Lee Hooper, Paul Elliott, Francesco P Cappuccio|journal=BMJ|] is likely explained by the blood-pressure-lowering effect of potassium.[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28419159|title=Oral potassium supplementation for management of essential hypertension: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|published=2017 Apr 18|authors=Jalal Poorolajal, Fatemeh Zeraati, Ali Reza Soltanian, Vida Sheikh, Elham Hooshmand, Akram Maleki|journal=PLoS One|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28024910|title=The effect of potassium supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|published=2017-Mar-01|authors=Filippini T, Violi F, D'Amico R, Vinceti M|journal=Int J Cardiol|] While some evidence shows that potassium intake causes natriuresis — increased sodium excretion in the urine — and reduces vascular resistance,[reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37454737|title=Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context.|published=2023-Sep|authors=Kettritz R, Loffing J|journal=Pharmacol Ther|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28419159|title=Oral potassium supplementation for management of essential hypertension: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|published=2017 Apr 18|authors=Jalal Poorolajal, Fatemeh Zeraati, Ali Reza Soltanian, Vida Sheikh, Elham Hooshmand, Akram Maleki|journal=PLoS One|][reference|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12111752|title=Diet and arterial hypertension: is the sodium ion alone important?|published=2002 Jul|authors=Buemi M, Senatore M, Corica F, Aloisi C, Romeo A, Tramontana D, Frisina N|journal=Med Res Rev|] it is not precisely understood how supplementation with potassium lowers blood pressure.

Glaucoma

Molly Gregas

Mineral intake and glaucoma risk

Calcium

Magnesium

Ear, Nose & Throat

Morgan Pfiffner

Henry Wideman

General Cardiovascular Health

Does supplementing with vitamins or minerals reduce blood pressure in people without high blood pressure?

Potassium

Don't miss out on the latest research