N-Acetylcysteine
•Last Updated: September 28 2022
N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is a prodrug for the amino acid L-cysteine and has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. NAC is commonly taken as a supplement for health and wellness and is used in clinical settings to treat drug overdose, cystic fibrosis, and chronic obstructive lung disease.
N-Acetylcysteine is most often used for
Last Updated: September 28 2022
N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is an acetylated form of the amino acid L-cysteine. It has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and mucolytic properties.[1] NAC is converted to L-cysteine after ingestion, which, in turn, is converted into glutathione, a powerful antioxidant. Free L-cysteine is readily oxidized in solution, encouraging the formation of insoluble precipitates.[2] In contrast, NAC is more stable and has a much lower toxicity than free L-cysteine,[3][4] making it safer and more effective for increasing cysteine levels in the body.
NAC reduces levels of proinflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress.[5][6] Because NAC increases glutathione levels in the body, which are rapidly depleted by stress, disease, or drug toxicity, it has applications in clinical settings, in addition to general health and wellness. NAC has been used for the treatment of cystic fibrosis (due to its mucolytic properties),[7] acute acetaminophen toxicity,[8] and chronic obstructive lung disease.
NAC is safe and effective at reasonable doses through oral supplementation. NAC toxicity mostly occurs in clinical settings, with one case of overdose occurring due to an error in the preparation of an IV solution. An excessive dose of NAC in a short time period can cause red blood cell lysis (hemolysis), low blood platelet count (thrombocytopenia), kidney failure, and possibly death.[9]
NAC has cytoprotective effects, which work through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. On the antioxidant side, although the NAC molecule itself has the ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), the antioxidant effects of NAC in the body mainly occur through increasing glutathione levels and other indirect mechanisms.[10] The anti-inflammatory effects of NAC are indirect and work through its antioxidant activity, which in turn inhibits the pro-inflammatory transcription factor NFkB.[11]
Note that N-Acetylcysteine is also known as:
- N-Acetyl Cysteine
- NAC
- N-Ac
What works and what doesn't?
Unlock the full potential of Examine
Latest Research
1.^Gerry K SchwalfenbergN-Acetylcysteine: A Review of Clinical Usefulness (an Old Drug with New Tricks)J Nutr Metab.(2021 Jun 9)
2.^A L SHEFFNERThe reduction in vitro in viscosity of mucoprotein solutions by a new mucolytic agent, N-acetyl-L-cysteineAnn N Y Acad Sci.(1963 Mar 30)
3.^S M BIRNBAUM, M WINITZ, J P GREENSTEINQuantitative nutritional studies with water-soluble, chemically defined diets. III. Individual amino acids as sources of non-essential nitrogenArch Biochem Biophys.(1957 Dec)
4.^Vered Gazit, Ron Ben-Abraham, Chaim G Pick, Izhar Ben-Shlomo, Yeshayahu KatzLong-term neurobehavioral and histological damage in brain of mice induced by L-cysteinePharmacol Biochem Behav.(2003 Jul)
5.^Micaely Cristina Dos Santos Tenório, Nayara Gomes Graciliano, Fabiana Andréa Moura, Alane Cabral Menezes de Oliveira, Marília Oliveira Fonseca GoulartN-Acetylcysteine (NAC): Impacts on Human HealthAntioxidants (Basel).(2021 Jun 16)
6.^Chad Kerksick, Darryn WilloughbyThe antioxidant role of glutathione and N-acetyl-cysteine supplements and exercise-induced oxidative stressJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2005 Dec 9)
7.^M Gracey, V Burke, C M AndersonTreatment of abdominal pain in cystic fibrosis by oral administration of n-acetyl cysteineArch Dis Child.(1969 Jun)
9.^Ghafar Ali Mahmoudi, Peyman Astaraki, Azita Zafar Mohtashami, Maryam AhadiN-acetylcysteine overdose after acetaminophen poisoningInt Med Case Rep J.(2015 Feb 27)
10.^Anatoly ZhitkovichN-Acetylcysteine: Antioxidant, Aldehyde Scavenger, and MoreChem Res Toxicol.(2019 Jul 15)
11.^S Oka, H Kamata, K Kamata, H Yagisawa, H HirataN-acetylcysteine suppresses TNF-induced NF-kappaB activation through inhibition of IkappaB kinasesFEBS Lett.(2000 Apr 28)
12.^Witschi A, Reddy S, Stofer B, Lauterburg BHThe systemic availability of oral glutathioneEur J Clin Pharmacol.(1992)
14.^Wang L, Wang Z, Liu JProtective effect of N-acetylcysteine on experimental chronic lead nephrotoxicity in immature female ratsHum Exp Toxicol.(2010 Jul)
15.^Kasperczyk S, Dobrakowski M, Kasperczyk A, Ostałowska A, Birkner EThe administration of N-acetylcysteine reduces oxidative stress and regulates glutathione metabolism in the blood cells of workers exposed to leadClin Toxicol (Phila).(2013 Jul)
16.^Flora G, Gupta D, Tiwari AToxicity of lead: A review with recent updatesInterdiscip Toxicol.(2012 Jun)
17.^Nehru B, Kanwar SSModulation by N-acetylcysteine of lead-induced alterations in rat brain: reduced glutathione levels and morphologyToxicol Mech Methods.(2007)
18.^Ercal N, Treeratphan P, Hammond TC, Matthews RH, Grannemann NH, Spitz DRIn vivo indices of oxidative stress in lead-exposed C57BL/6 mice are reduced by treatment with meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid or N-acetylcysteineFree Radic Biol Med.(1996)
19.^Kasperczyk A, Słowińska-Łożyńska L, Dobrakowski M, Zalejska-Fiolka J, Kasperczyk SThe effect of lead-induced oxidative stress on blood viscosity and rheological properties of erythrocytes in lead exposed humansClin Hemorheol Microcirc.(2013 Jan 31)
20.^Jung T, Bader N, Grune TLipofuscin: formation, distribution, and metabolic consequencesAnn N Y Acad Sci.(2007 Nov)
21.^Farr SA, Poon HF, Dogrukol-Ak D, Drake J, Banks WA, Eyerman E, Butterfield DA, Morley JEThe antioxidants alpha-lipoic acid and N-acetylcysteine reverse memory impairment and brain oxidative stress in aged SAMP8 miceJ Neurochem.(2003 Mar)
22.^Neuwelt EA, Pagel MA, Hasler BP, Deloughery TG, Muldoon LLTherapeutic efficacy of aortic administration of N-acetylcysteine as a chemoprotectant against bone marrow toxicity after intracarotid administration of alkylators, with or without glutathione depletion in a rat modelCancer Res.(2001 Nov 1)
23.^Dean O, Giorlando F, Berk MN-acetylcysteine in psychiatry: current therapeutic evidence and potential mechanisms of actionJ Psychiatry Neurosci.(2011 Mar)
24.^Sjödin K, Nilsson E, Hallberg A, Tunek AMetabolism of N-acetyl-L-cysteine. Some structural requirements for the deacetylation and consequences for the oral bioavailabilityBiochem Pharmacol.(1989 Nov 15)
25.^Baker DA, Xi ZX, Shen H, Swanson CJ, Kalivas PWThe origin and neuronal function of in vivo nonsynaptic glutamateJ Neurosci.(2002 Oct 15)
26.^Moran MM, McFarland K, Melendez RI, Kalivas PW, Seamans JKCystine/glutamate exchange regulates metabotropic glutamate receptor presynaptic inhibition of excitatory transmission and vulnerability to cocaine seekingJ Neurosci.(2005 Jul 6)
27.^Kau KS, Madayag A, Mantsch JR, Grier MD, Abdulhameed O, Baker DABlunted cystine-glutamate antiporter function in the nucleus accumbens promotes cocaine-induced drug seekingNeuroscience.(2008 Aug 13)
28.^Madayag A, Lobner D, Kau KS, Mantsch JR, Abdulhameed O, Hearing M, Grier MD, Baker DARepeated N-acetylcysteine administration alters plasticity-dependent effects of cocaineJ Neurosci.(2007 Dec 19)
29.^Xi ZX, Ramamoorthy S, Baker DA, Shen H, Samuvel DJ, Kalivas PWModulation of group II metabotropic glutamate receptor signaling by chronic cocaineJ Pharmacol Exp Ther.(2002 Nov)
30.^Schmaal L, Veltman DJ, Nederveen A, van den Brink W, Goudriaan AEN-acetylcysteine normalizes glutamate levels in cocaine-dependent patients: a randomized crossover magnetic resonance spectroscopy studyNeuropsychopharmacology.(2012 Aug)
31.^Varga V, Jenei Z, Janáky R, Saransaari P, Oja SSGlutathione is an endogenous ligand of rat brain N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and 2-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA) receptorsNeurochem Res.(1997 Sep)
32.^Ogita K, Kitago T, Nakamuta H, Fukuda Y, Koida M, Ogawa Y, Yoneda YGlutathione-induced inhibition of Na+-independent and -dependent bindings of L-{3H}glutamate in rat brainLife Sci.(1986 Dec 22)
33.^Gere-Pászti E, Jakus JThe effect of N-acetylcysteine on amphetamine-mediated dopamine release in rat brain striatal slices by ion-pair reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatographyBiomed Chromatogr.(2009 Jun)
34.^Janáky R, Dohovics R, Saransaari P, Oja SSModulation of {3H}dopamine release by glutathione in mouse striatal slicesNeurochem Res.(2007 Aug)
35.^Hashimoto K, Tsukada H, Nishiyama S, Fukumoto D, Kakiuchi T, Shimizu E, Iyo MEffects of N-acetyl-L-cysteine on the reduction of brain dopamine transporters in monkey treated with methamphetamineAnn N Y Acad Sci.(2004 Oct)
36.^Berk M, Jeavons S, Dean OM, Dodd S, Moss K, Gama CS, Malhi GSNail-biting stuff? The effect of N-acetyl cysteine on nail-bitingCNS Spectr.(2009 Jul)
37.^Grant JE, Odlaug BL, Chamberlain SR, Keuthen NJ, Lochner C, Stein DJSkin picking disorderAm J Psychiatry.(2012 Nov 1)
38.^Ghanizadeh A, Moghimi-Sarani EA randomized double blind placebo controlled clinical trial of N-Acetylcysteine added to risperidone for treating autistic disordersBMC Psychiatry.(2013 Jul 25)
39.^Hardan AY, Fung LK, Libove RA, Obukhanych TV, Nair S, Herzenberg LA, Frazier TW, Tirouvanziam RA randomized controlled pilot trial of oral N-acetylcysteine in children with autismBiol Psychiatry.(2012 Jun 1)
41.^Huey ED, Zahn R, Krueger F, Moll J, Kapogiannis D, Wassermann EM, Grafman JA psychological and neuroanatomical model of obsessive-compulsive disorderJ Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci.(2008 Fall)
42.^Chakraborty S, Singh OP, Dasgupta A, Mandal N, Nath Das HCorrelation between lipid peroxidation-induced TBARS level and disease severity in obsessive-compulsive disorderProg Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry.(2009 Mar 17)
43.^Kuloglu M, Atmaca M, Tezcan E, Gecici O, Tunckol H, Ustundag BAntioxidant enzyme activities and malondialdehyde levels in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorderNeuropsychobiology.(2002)
44.^Ersan S, Bakir S, Erdal Ersan E, Dogan OExamination of free radical metabolism and antioxidant defence system elements in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorderProg Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry.(2006 Aug 30)
45.^Ozdemir E, Cetinkaya S, Ersan S, Kucukosman S, Ersan EESerum selenium and plasma malondialdehyde levels and antioxidant enzyme activities in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorderProg Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry.(2009 Feb 1)
46.^Egashira N, Shirakawa A, Abe M, Niki T, Mishima K, Iwasaki K, Oishi R, Fujiwara MN-acetyl-L-cysteine inhibits marble-burying behavior in miceJ Pharmacol Sci.(2012)
47.^Bloch MH, McGuire J, Landeros-Weisenberger A, Leckman JF, Pittenger CMeta-analysis of the dose-response relationship of SSRI in obsessive-compulsive disorderMol Psychiatry.(2010 Aug)
48.^Lafleur DL, Pittenger C, Kelmendi B, Gardner T, Wasylink S, Malison RT, Sanacora G, Krystal JH, Coric VN-acetylcysteine augmentation in serotonin reuptake inhibitor refractory obsessive-compulsive disorderPsychopharmacology (Berl).(2006 Jan)
49.^Afshar H, Roohafza H, Mohammad-Beigi H, Haghighi M, Jahangard L, Shokouh P, Sadeghi M, Hafezian HN-acetylcysteine add-on treatment in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialJ Clin Psychopharmacol.(2012 Dec)
50.^Dell'Osso B, Altamura AC, Allen A, Marazziti D, Hollander EEpidemiologic and clinical updates on impulse control disorders: a critical reviewEur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci.(2006 Dec)
51.^Grant JE, Odlaug BL, Potenza MNAddicted to hair pulling? How an alternate model of trichotillomania may improve treatment outcomeHarv Rev Psychiatry.(2007 Mar-Apr)
52.^Odlaug BL, Grant JEN-acetyl cysteine in the treatment of grooming disordersJ Clin Psychopharmacol.(2007 Apr)
53.^Grant JE, Odlaug BL, Kim SWN-acetylcysteine, a glutamate modulator, in the treatment of trichotillomania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled studyArch Gen Psychiatry.(2009 Jul)
54.^Heishman SJ, Singleton EGAssessment of cannabis craving using the Marijuana Craving QuestionnaireMethods Mol Med.(2006)
55.^Gray KM, Watson NL, Carpenter MJ, Larowe SDN-acetylcysteine (NAC) in young marijuana users: an open-label pilot studyAm J Addict.(2010 Mar-Apr)
56.^Kampman KM, Volpicelli JR, McGinnis DE, Alterman AI, Weinrieb RM, D'Angelo L, Epperson LEReliability and validity of the Cocaine Selective Severity AssessmentAddict Behav.(1998 Jul-Aug)
57.^LaRowe SD, Mardikian P, Malcolm R, Myrick H, Kalivas P, McFarland K, Saladin M, McRae A, Brady KSafety and tolerability of N-acetylcysteine in cocaine-dependent individualsAm J Addict.(2006 Jan-Feb)
58.^Knackstedt LA, LaRowe S, Mardikian P, Malcolm R, Upadhyaya H, Hedden S, Markou A, Kalivas PWThe role of cystine-glutamate exchange in nicotine dependence in rats and humansBiol Psychiatry.(2009 May 15)
59.^Cobley JN, McGlory C, Morton JP, Close GLN-Acetylcysteine Attenuates Fatigue Following Repeated-Bouts of Intermittent Exercise: Practical Implications for Tournament SituationsInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2011 Aug 29)
60.^Cobley JN, McGlory C, Morton JP, Close GLN-Acetylcysteine's attenuation of fatigue after repeated bouts of intermittent exercise: practical implications for tournament situationsInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2011 Dec)
64.^Benrahmoune M, Thérond P, Abedinzadeh ZThe reaction of superoxide radical with N-acetylcysteineFree Radic Biol Med.(2000 Oct 15)
65.^Bielski BH, Shiue GGReaction rates of superoxide radicals with the essential amino acidsCiba Found Symp.(1978 Jun 6-8)
66.^Winterbourn CC, Metodiewa DThe reaction of superoxide with reduced glutathioneArch Biochem Biophys.(1994 Nov 1)
67.^Cardey B, Foley S, Enescu MMechanism of thiol oxidation by the superoxide radicalJ Phys Chem A.(2007 Dec 20)
68.^Moldéus P, Cotgreave IA, Berggren MLung protection by a thiol-containing antioxidant: N-acetylcysteineRespiration.(1986)
69.^Aruoma OI, Halliwell B, Hoey BM, Butler JThe antioxidant action of N-acetylcysteine: its reaction with hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical, superoxide, and hypochlorous acidFree Radic Biol Med.(1989)
70.^Heinecke JWPathways for oxidation of low density lipoprotein by myeloperoxidase: tyrosyl radical, reactive aldehydes, hypochlorous acid and molecular chlorineBiofactors.(1997)
71.^van Overveld FJ, Demkow U, Górecka D, de Backer WA, Zielinski JNew developments in the treatment of COPD: comparing the effects of inhaled corticosteroids and N-acetylcysteineJ Physiol Pharmacol.(2005 Sep)
72.^Karbasi A, Hossein Hosseini S, Shohrati M, Amini M, Najafian BEffect of oral N-acetyl cysteine on eradication of Helicobacter pylori in patients with dyspepsiaMinerva Gastroenterol Dietol.(2013 Mar)
73.^Scalley RD, Conner CSAcetaminophen poisoning: a case report of the use of acetylcysteineAm J Hosp Pharm.(1978 Aug)
74.^Tsikas D1, Niemann J2, Flentje M2, Schwarz A2, Tossios P2N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) inhibits renal nitrite and nitrate reabsorption in healthy subjects and in patients undergoing cardiac surgery: risk of nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability loss by NACInt J Cardiol.(2014 Nov 15)
75.^Chai YC1, Jung CH, Lii CK, Ashraf SS, Hendrich S, Wolf B, Sies H, Thomas JAIdentification of an abundant S-thiolated rat liver protein as carbonic anhydrase III; characterization of S-thiolation and dethiolation reactionsArch Biochem Biophys.(1991 Feb 1)
76.^Carbonic anhydrase VII is S-glutathionylated without loss of catalytic activity and affinity for sulfonamide inhibitors.()
77.^Sütö T1, Losonczy G, Qiu C, Hill C, Samsell L, Ruby J, Charon N, Venuto R, Baylis CAcute changes in urinary excretion of nitrite + nitrate do not necessarily predict renal vascular NO productionKidney Int.(1995 Oct)
78.^Chobanyan-Jürgens K1, Schwarz A, Böhmer A, Beckmann B, Gutzki FM, Michaelsen JT, Stichtenoth DO, Tsikas DRenal carbonic anhydrases are involved in the reabsorption of endogenous nitriteNitric Oxide.(2012 Feb 15)
79.^Aamand R1, Dalsgaard T, Jensen FB, Simonsen U, Roepstorff A, Fago AGeneration of nitric oxide from nitrite by carbonic anhydrase: a possible link between metabolic activity and vasodilationAm J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol.(2009 Dec)
80.^Torring MS1, Holmgaard K, Hessellund A, Aalkjaer C, Bek TThe vasodilating effect of acetazolamide and dorzolamide involves mechanisms other than carbonic anhydrase inhibitionInvest Ophthalmol Vis Sci.(2009 Jan)
81.^Palmer LA1, Doctor A, Chhabra P, Sheram ML, Laubach VE, Karlinsey MZ, Forbes MS, Macdonald T, Gaston BS-nitrosothiols signal hypoxia-mimetic vascular pathologyJ Clin Invest.(2007 Sep)
82.^Hildebrandt W1, Alexander S, Bärtsch P, Dröge WEffect of N-acetyl-cysteine on the hypoxic ventilatory response and erythropoietin production: linkage between plasma thiol redox state and O(2) chemosensitivityBlood.(2002 Mar 1)
83.^McMahon TJ1, Ahearn GS, Moya MP, Gow AJ, Huang YC, Luchsinger BP, Nudelman R, Yan Y, Krichman AD, Bashore TM, Califf RM, Singel DJ, Piantadosi CA, Tapson VF, Stamler JSA nitric oxide processing defect of red blood cells created by hypoxia: deficiency of S-nitrosohemoglobin in pulmonary hypertensionProc Natl Acad Sci U S A.(2005 Oct 11)
84.^Gaston B1, Singel D, Doctor A, Stamler JSS-nitrosothiol signaling in respiratory biologyAm J Respir Crit Care Med.(2006 Jun 1)
85.^Lonergan KM1, Iliopoulos O, Ohh M, Kamura T, Conaway RC, Conaway JW, Kaelin WG JrRegulation of hypoxia-inducible mRNAs by the von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor protein requires binding to complexes containing elongins B/C and Cul2Mol Cell Biol.(1998 Feb)
86.^Ohh M1, Park CW, Ivan M, Hoffman MA, Kim TY, Huang LE, Pavletich N, Chau V, Kaelin WGUbiquitination of hypoxia-inducible factor requires direct binding to the beta-domain of the von Hippel-Lindau proteinNat Cell Biol.(2000 Jul)
87.^van Overveld FJ, Vermeire PA, De Backer WAInduced sputum of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) contains adhesion-promoting, therapy-sensitive factorsInflamm Res.(2000 Jan)
88.^Bowe WP, Patel N, Logan ACAcne vulgaris: the role of oxidative stress and the potential therapeutic value of local and systemic antioxidantsJ Drugs Dermatol.(2012 Jun)
89.^ Sahib A, Al-Anbari H, Salih M, Abdullah FEffects of Oral Antioxidants on Lesion Counts Associated with Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Patients with Papulopustular AcneJ Clin Exp Dermatol Res.(2012 Dec))
90.^Celli BR, MacNee W; ATS/ERS Task ForceStandards for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with COPD: a summary of the ATS/ERS position paperEur Respir J.(2004 Jun)
91.^Vernooy JH, Küçükaycan M, Jacobs JA, Chavannes NH, Buurman WA, Dentener MA, Wouters EFLocal and systemic inflammation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors are increased in sputumAm J Respir Crit Care Med.(2002 Nov 1)
92.^Sadowska AM, van Overveld FJ, Górecka D, Zdral A, Filewska M, Demkow UA, Luyten C, Saenen E, Zielinski J, De Backer WAThe interrelationship between markers of inflammation and oxidative stress in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: modulation by inhaled steroids and antioxidantRespir Med.(2005 Feb)
93.^Sadowska AM, Manuel-Y-Keenoy B, De Backer WAAntioxidant and anti-inflammatory efficacy of NAC in the treatment of COPD: discordant in vitro and in vivo dose-effects: a reviewPulm Pharmacol Ther.(2007)
94.^De Benedetto F, Aceto A, Dragani B, Spacone A, Formisano S, Pela R, Donner CF, Sanguinetti CMLong-term oral n-acetylcysteine reduces exhaled hydrogen peroxide in stable COPDPulm Pharmacol Ther.(2005)
95.^Kostikas K, Papatheodorou G, Psathakis K, Panagou P, Loukides SOxidative stress in expired breath condensate of patients with COPDChest.(2003 Oct)
96.^De Benedetto F, Aceto A, Dragani B, Spacone A, Formisano S, Cocco R, Sanguinetti CMValidation of a new technique to assess exhaled hydrogen peroxide: results from normals and COPD patientsMonaldi Arch Chest Dis.(2000 Jun)
97.^Decramer M, Rutten-van Mölken M, Dekhuijzen PN, Troosters T, van Herwaarden C, Pellegrino R, van Schayck CP, Olivieri D, Del Donno M, De Backer W, Lankhorst I, Ardia AEffects of N-acetylcysteine on outcomes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (Bronchitis Randomized on NAC Cost-Utility Study, BRONCUS): a randomised placebo-controlled trialLancet.(2005 Apr 30-May 6)
98.^Randomised, controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine for treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.()
99.^Melnyk S, Fuchs GJ, Schulz E, Lopez M, Kahler SG, Fussell JJ, Bellando J, Pavliv O, Rose S, Seidel L, Gaylor DW, James SJMetabolic imbalance associated with methylation dysregulation and oxidative damage in children with autismJ Autism Dev Disord.(2012 Mar)
100.^Parellada M, Moreno C, Mac-Dowell K, Leza JC, Giraldez M, Bailón C, Castro C, Miranda-Azpiazu P, Fraguas D, Arango CPlasma antioxidant capacity is reduced in Asperger syndromeJ Psychiatr Res.(2012 Mar)
101.^Essa MM, Guillemin GJ, Waly MI, Al-Sharbati MM, Al-Farsi YM, Hakkim FL, Ali A, Al-Shafaee MSIncreased markers of oxidative stress in autistic children of the Sultanate of OmanBiol Trace Elem Res.(2012 Jun)
102.^Ming X, Stein TP, Brimacombe M, Johnson WG, Lambert GH, Wagner GCIncreased excretion of a lipid peroxidation biomarker in autismProstaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids.(2005 Nov)
103.^Chauhan A, Audhya T, Chauhan VBrain region-specific glutathione redox imbalance in autismNeurochem Res.(2012 Aug)
104.^Bowers K, Li Q, Bressler J, Avramopoulos D, Newschaffer C, Fallin MDGlutathione pathway gene variation and risk of autism spectrum disordersJ Neurodev Disord.(2011 Jun)
105.^Al-Yafee YA, Al-Ayadhi LY, Haq SH, El-Ansary AKNovel metabolic biomarkers related to sulfur-dependent detoxification pathways in autistic patients of Saudi ArabiaBMC Neurol.(2011 Nov 4)
106.^Ghanizadeh ACould fever and neuroinflammation play a role in the neurobiology of autism? A subject worthy of more researchInt J Hyperthermia.(2011)
107.^Harrison CNeurodevelopmental disorders: Glutamate blockers show benefit in models of autism spectrum disordersNat Rev Drug Discov.(2012 Jun 1)
108.^Niederhofer HGlutamate antagonists seem to be slightly effective in psychopharmacologic treatment of autismJ Clin Psychopharmacol.(2007 Jun)
109.^Ghanizadeh A, Derakhshan NN-acetylcysteine for treatment of autism, a case reportJ Res Med Sci.(2012 Oct)
110.^Aman MG, Singh NN, Stewart AW, Field CJThe aberrant behavior checklist: a behavior rating scale for the assessment of treatment effectsAm J Ment Defic.(1985 Mar)
111.^Walters MT, Rubin CE, Keightley SJ, Ward CD, Cawley MIA double-blind, cross-over, study of oral N-acetylcysteine in Sjögren's syndromeScand J Rheumatol Suppl.(1986)
112.^Ekins BR, Ford DC, Thompson MI, Bridges RR, Rollins DE, Jenkins RDThe effect of activated charcoal on N-acetylcysteine absorption in normal subjectsAm J Emerg Med.(1987 Nov)
113.^Renzi FP, Donovan JW, Martin TG, Morgan L, Harrison EFConcomitant use of activated charcoal and N-acetylcysteineAnn Emerg Med.(1985 Jun)
114.^Wang AL1, Wang JP, Wang H, Chen YH, Zhao L, Wang LS, Wei W, Xu DXA dual effect of N-acetylcysteine on acute ethanol-induced liver damage in miceHepatol Res.(2006 Mar)
115.^Ozaras R1, Tahan V, Aydin S, Uzun H, Kaya S, Senturk HN-acetylcysteine attenuates alcohol-induced oxidative stress in the ratWorld J Gastroenterol.(2003 Jan)
116.^Caro AA1, Bell M, Ejiofor S, Zurcher G, Petersen DR, Ronis MJN-acetylcysteine inhibits the up-regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis genes in livers from rats fed ethanol chronicallyAlcohol Clin Exp Res.(2014 Dec)
117.^Aydin S1, Ozaras R, Uzun H, Belce A, Uslu E, Tahan V, Altug T, Dumen E, Senturk HN-acetylcysteine reduced the effect of ethanol on antioxidant system in rat plasma and brain tissueTohoku J Exp Med.(2002 Oct)
118.^Ferreira Seiva FR1, Amauchi JF, Ribeiro Rocha KK, Souza GA, Ebaid GX, Burneiko RM, Novelli ELEffects of N-acetylcysteine on alcohol abstinence and alcohol-induced adverse effects in ratsAlcohol.(2009 Mar)
Primary Use