Limonene Research Analysis

Kamal Patel

Limonene

•Last Updated: September 28 2022

D-Limonene is a molecule that is found in high levels in lemons (where it derives its name) but also most citrus foods. It holds promise as an anti-cancer agent, and for some reason is marketed as a fat burner despite minimal evidence of fat burning effects. Can be consumed via pulpy lemon juice.

Dosage

Limonene is most often used for

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Kamal Patel, MPH, MBA

Last Updated: September 28 2022

summary
Dosage information
Research breakdown
References

Summary

D-Limonene is a compound known as 'lemon extract' and is found in high levels in lemon juices.

It itself, as well as its related product known as 'perillic acid', are known to be anti-carcinogenic (cancer fighting) and liver healthy. Consumption of D-Limonene in either supplemental form or as freshly squeezed and pulp-containing lemonade has been shown to reduce the formation of some tumor growths and alleviate fat buildup in the liver induced by diet.

Although commercial juices tend to have low levels of D-Limonene, freshly squeezed 'Mediterranean Style' juice with the pulp has high levels of it.

What else is Limonene known as?

Note that Limonene is also known as:

Lemon Extract
D-Limonene

Dosage information

30-40 liquid oz. of Mediterranean Style (pulp in) lemonade confers approximately 500mg D-Limonene, which can be seen as an active dose.

Otherwise, many benefits are seen with 1g of D-Limonene daily.

Research Breakdown

1

Sources and Structure

1.1

Sources

1.2

Structure

2

Limonene pharmacology

3

Limonene from food sources

4

Limonene and liver health

5

Limonene and body fat

6

Limonene and Cancer

7

Safety

References

1.^Sun JD-Limonene: safety and clinical applicationsAltern Med Rev.(2007 Sep)

2.^Perez-Cacho PR, Rouseff RLFresh squeezed orange juice odor: a reviewCrit Rev Food Sci Nutr.(2008 Aug)

3.^Limem-Ben Amor I, Boubaker J, Ben Sgaier M, Skandrani I, Bhouri W, Neffati A, Kilani S, Bouhlel I, Ghedira K, Chekir-Ghedira LPhytochemistry and biological activities of Phlomis speciesJ Ethnopharmacol.(2009 Sep 7)

4.^Acharya A, Das I, Singh S, Saha TChemopreventive properties of indole-3-carbinol, diindolylmethane and other constituents of cardamom against carcinogenesisRecent Pat Food Nutr Agric.(2010 Jun)

5.^Satomi Y, Ohara K, Yazaki K, Ito M, Honda G, Nishino HProduction of the monoterpene limonene and modulation of apoptosis-related proteins in embryonic-mouse NIH 3T3 fibroblast cells by introduction of the limonene synthase gene isolated from Japanese catnip (Schizonepeta tenuifolia)Biotechnol Appl Biochem.(2009 Mar)

6.^Hyatt DC, Youn B, Zhao Y, Santhamma B, Coates RM, Croteau RB, Kang CStructure of limonene synthase, a simple model for terpenoid cyclase catalysisProc Natl Acad Sci U S A.(2007 Mar 27)

7.^Crowell PL, Elson CE, Bailey HH, Elegbede A, Haag JD, Gould MNHuman metabolism of the experimental cancer therapeutic agent d-limoneneCancer Chemother Pharmacol.(1994)

8.^Miyazawa M, Shindo M, Shimada TMetabolism of (+)- and (-)-limonenes to respective carveols and perillyl alcohols by CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 in human liver microsomesDrug Metab Dispos.(2002 May)

9.^Shimada T, Shindo M, Miyazawa MSpecies differences in the metabolism of (+)- and (-)-limonenes and their metabolites, carveols and carvones, by cytochrome P450 enzymes in liver microsomes of mice, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, dogs, monkeys, and humansDrug Metab Pharmacokinet.(2002)

10.^Kodama R, Yano T, Furukawa K, Noda K, Ide HStudies on the metabolism of d-limonene (p-mentha-1,8-diene). IV. Isolation and characterization of new metabolites and species differences in metabolismXenobiotica.(1976 Jun)

11.^Vigushin DM, Poon GK, Boddy A, English J, Halbert GW, Pagonis C, Jarman M, Coombes RCPhase I and pharmacokinetic study of D-limonene in patients with advanced cancer. Cancer Research Campaign Phase I/II Clinical Trials CommitteeCancer Chemother Pharmacol.(1998)

12.^Crowell PL, Lin S, Vedejs E, Gould MNIdentification of metabolites of the antitumor agent d-limonene capable of inhibiting protein isoprenylation and cell growthCancer Chemother Pharmacol.(1992)

13.^Pharmacokinetics of Perillic Acid in Humans after a Single Dose Administration of a Citrus Preparation Rich in d-Limonene Content.()

14.^Assessing Dietary D-Limonene Intake for Epidemiological Studies.()

15.^Dietary d-limonene alleviates insulin resistance and oxidative stress-induced liver injury in high-fat diet and L-NAME-treated rats.(2011 Mar 29. [Epub ahead of print)

16.^Miller JA, Hakim IA, Chew W, Thompson P, Thomson CA, Chow HHAdipose tissue accumulation of d-limonene with the consumption of a lemonade preparation rich in d-limonene contentNutr Cancer.(2010)

17.^Miller JA, Hakim IA, Thomson C, Thompson P, Chow HHDetermination of d-limonene in adipose tissue by gas chromatography-mass spectrometryJ Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci.(2008 Jul 1)

18.^Metz SA, Rabaglia ME, Stock JB, Kowluru AModulation of insulin secretion from normal rat islets by inhibitors of the post-translational modifications of GTP-binding proteinsBiochem J.(1993 Oct 1)

19.^Park HM, Lee JH, Yaoyao J, Jun HJ, Lee SJLimonene, a natural cyclic terpene, is an agonistic ligand for adenosine A(2A) receptorsBiochem Biophys Res Commun.(2011 Jan 7)

20.^Crowell PLMonoterpenes in breast cancer chemopreventionBreast Cancer Res Treat.(1997 Nov-Dec)

21.^Crowell PLPrevention and therapy of cancer by dietary monoterpenesJ Nutr.(1999 Mar)

22.^Tsuda H, Ohshima Y, Nomoto H, Fujita K, Matsuda E, Iigo M, Takasuka N, Moore MACancer prevention by natural compoundsDrug Metab Pharmacokinet.(2004 Aug)

23.^Gelb MH, Tamanoi F, Yokoyama K, Ghomashchi F, Esson K, Gould MNThe inhibition of protein prenyltransferases by oxygenated metabolites of limonene and perillyl alcoholCancer Lett.(1995 May 8)

24.^Effects of anticarcinogenic monoterpenes on phase II hepatic metabolizing enzymes.()

25.^Effects of monoterpenoids on in vivo DMBA-DNA adduct formation and on phase I hepatic metabolizing enzymes.()

26.^Flamm WG, Lehman-McKeeman LDThe human relevance of the renal tumor-inducing potential of d-limonene in male rats: implications for risk assessmentRegul Toxicol Pharmacol.(1991 Feb)

Primary Use

Cancer

Secondary Use

Liver Health

Limonene

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