Vinpocetine
•Last Updated: September 28 2022
Vinpocetine is a compound from the Periwinkle plant that is used as a cognitive protective and anti-aging agent. One of the more common of the nootropics, Vinpocetine may enhance blood flow and is touted to increase memory; this latter claim has not been investigated.
Vinpocetine is most often used for
Last Updated: September 28 2022
Vinpocetine is a synthetic alkaloid derived from the periwinkle plant (specifically, synthesized from the molecule known as 'vincamine') that appears to have a track record of usage in European countries for the treatment of cognitive decline, stroke recovery, and epilepsy. Vinpocetine is also commonly used as a nootropic compound in the hopes that it may promote memory formation.
Vinpocetine is not fully absorbed, but what is absorbed peaks in the blood rapidly and easily enters the brain where it can exert its functions. The properties that appear to apply to oral vinpocetine supplementation include neuroprotection (against toxins and excess stimulation) and reducing neural inflammation, whereas the cognitive enhancement effect does not appear to be well supported by evidence at this point in time. While vinpocetine does appear to be effective in preventing toxins or stressors from causing amnesia, it is not yet demonstrated to inherently improve memory formation.
Vinpocetine also appears to have some efficacy against cognitive decline, but the amount of literature on this topic is much less than other drugs tested for this purpose (CDP-Choline or Alpha-GPC in particular). At least one study has noted an improvement in reaction time with a 40mg tablet of vinpocetine, which may be one of the only practically relevant improvements for healthy persons at this moment in time.
Infusions of vinpocetine do appear to enhance blood flow to the brain without inherently modifying pressure systemically, and this is thought (but not shown) to apply to oral ingestion. This would potentially reduce headaches caused by excessive pressure, and is in accordance with the traditional usage of the periwinkle plant (to reduce headaches).
Vinpocetine appears to have a role in neuroprotection and reducing neural inflammation, and for healthy persons it may potentially increase blood flow to the brain and improve reaction time (Limited evidence all around). The benefit of vinpocetine in memory formation is not yet proven, but it may protect the brain from amnesia
The mechanisms of vinpocetine are numerous. It appears to interact with several ion channels (sodium, potassium, and calcium) while tends to result in suppressive effects on neurotransmitter release and neuroprotection when dopamine or glutamate are suppressed (these two, when unnecessarily stimulated by toxins, can cause oxidative damage). It also interacts with alpha adrenergic receptors and the TPSO receptor, and while the exact benefit of these receptor interactions are not clear they are probably relevant since they occur at the same concentrations that the ion channel interactions do.
Vinpocetine is also a PDE1 inhibitor, which is a mechanism that is both cardioprotective and cognitive enhancing. Unfortunately, this inhibition occurs at a fairly large dose and may not apply to standard supplemental dosages of vinpocetine.
Similar to PDE1, an antidopaminergic potential of vinpocetine and direct inhibition of glutaminergic receptors both appear to occur at very high concentrations in vitro and may not be relevant to standard supplementation.
Vinpocetine is likely a modulator of ion channel activity, although there are some receptor interactions on alpha-adrenergic and TSPO that appear to be relevant. Other mechanisms including PDE1 inhibition or hindering glutaminergic/dopaminergic neurotransmission have been noted in vitro but at concentrations which are much higher and thus may not be relevant following oral ingestion of vinpocetine
Vinpocetine has been linked to fetal toxicity in a series of animal studies. Caution in warranted.
Note that Vinpocetine is also known as:
- Vincamine
- Vinca Minor
- Periwinkle Extract
- Cavinton (Brand Name)
- Ethyl Apovincaminate
Vinpocetine is taken in the daily dosage range of 15-60mg, divided into three daily doses with meals. The standard low dose is 5mg at each of these three meals, with 20mg at each meal being seen as the higher end of efficacy. These doses are taken for the purposes of neuroprotection, enhancing cerebral blood flow, and reducing the rate of cognitive decline.
Doses in the higher end of that range (30-45mg acute dosages) may be useful for promoting cognition and memory formation in otherwise healthy persons, but there is not a lot of evidence looking at this claim.
Warning: for pregnant women, the equivalent of doses abouve 10 mg/d have been linked to fetal toxicity in animal studies. 10 mg/d may also be risky, especially when taking throughout an entire pregnancy.
What works and what doesn't?
Unlock the full potential of Examine
3.^Synthesis of Vinca Alkaloids and Related Compounds, XV1) A New Synthetic Route to (+)-Vincaminic and (+)-Apovincaminic Esters
4.^Bagoly E, Fehér G, Szapáry LThe role of vinpocetine in the treatment of cerebrovascular diseases based in human studiesOrv Hetil.(2007 Jul 22)
5.^Patyar S, Prakash A, Modi M, Medhi BRole of vinpocetine in cerebrovascular diseasesPharmacol Rep.(2011)
6.^Bönöczk P, Gulyás B, Adam-Vizi V, Nemes A, Kárpáti E, Kiss B, Kapás M, Szántay C, Koncz I, Zelles T, Vas ARole of sodium channel inhibition in neuroprotection: effect of vinpocetineBrain Res Bull.(2000 Oct)
8.^Szakács T, Veres Z, Vereczkey LIn vitro-in vivo correlation of the pharmacokinetics of vinpocetinePol J Pharmacol.(2001 Nov-Dec)
9.^Grandt R, Beitinger H, Schaltenbrand R, Braun WVinpocetine pharmacokinetics in elderly subjectsArzneimittelforschung.(1989 Dec)
10.^Vereczkey L, Czira G, Tamás J, Szentirmay Z, Botár Z, Szporny LPharmacokinetics of vinpocetine in humansArzneimittelforschung.(1979)
11.^Sozański T, Magdalan J, Trocha M, Szumny A, Merwid-Ląd A, Słupski W, Karaźniewicz-Łada M, Kiełbowicz G, Ksiądzyna D, Szeląg AOmeprazole does not change the oral bioavailability or pharmacokinetics of vinpocetine in ratsPharmacol Rep.(2011)
12.^Lohmann A, Dingler E, Sommer W, Schaffler K, Wober W, Schmidt WBioavailability of vinpocetine and interference of the time of application with food intakeArzneimittelforschung.(1992 Jul)
13.^Cui SX, Nie SF, Li L, Wang CG, Pan WS, Sun JPPreparation and evaluation of self-microemulsifying drug delivery system containing vinpocetineDrug Dev Ind Pharm.(2009 May)
14.^Xu H, He L, Nie S, Guan J, Zhang X, Yang X, Pan WOptimized preparation of vinpocetine proliposomes by a novel method and in vivo evaluation of its pharmacokinetics in New Zealand rabbitsJ Control Release.(2009 Nov 16)
15.^Miskolczi P, Vereczkey L, Szalay L, Göndöc CEffect of age on the pharmacokinetics of vinpocetine (Cavinton) and apovincaminic acidEur J Clin Pharmacol.(1987)
16.^Chen J, Cai J, Tao W, Mei N, Cao S, Jiang XDetermination of apovincaminic acid in human plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography using solid-phase extraction and ultraviolet detectionJ Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci.(2006 Jan 18)
17.^Vereczkey LPharmacokinetics and metabolism of vincamine and related compoundsEur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet.(1985 Apr-Jun)
18.^El-Laithy HM, Shoukry O, Mahran LGNovel sugar esters proniosomes for transdermal delivery of vinpocetine: preclinical and clinical studiesEur J Pharm Biopharm.(2011 Jan)
19.^Gulyás B, Halldin C, Sóvágó J, Sandell J, Cselényi Z, Vas A, Kiss B, Kárpáti E, Farde LDrug distribution in man: a positron emission tomography study after oral administration of the labelled neuroprotective drug vinpocetineEur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging.(2002 Aug)
20.^Miskolczi P, Kozma K, Polgár M, Vereczkey LPharmacokinetics of vinpocetine and its main metabolite apovincaminic acid before and after the chronic oral administration of vinpocetine to humansEur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet.(1990 Jan-Mar)
21.^Vlase L, Bodiu B, Leucuta SEPharmacokinetics and comparative bioavailability of two vinpocetine tablet formulations in healthy volunteers by using the metabolite apovincaminic acid as pharmacokinetic parameterArzneimittelforschung.(2005)
22.^Gulyás B, Halldin C, Karlsson P, Chou YH, Swahn CG, Bönöck P, Paróczai M, Farde LBrain uptake and plasma metabolism of {11C}vinpocetine: a preliminary PET study in a cynomolgus monkeyJ Neuroimaging.(1999 Oct)
23.^Gulyás B, Halldin C, Sandell J, Karlsson P, Sóvágó J, Kárpáti E, Kiss B, Vas A, Cselényi Z, Farde LPET studies on the brain uptake and regional distribution of {11C}vinpocetine in human subjectsActa Neurol Scand.(2002 Dec)
24.^Vas A, Gulyás B, Szabó Z, Bönöczk P, Csiba L, Kiss B, Kárpáti E, Pánczél G, Nagy ZClinical and non-clinical investigations using positron emission tomography, near infrared spectroscopy and transcranial Doppler methods on the neuroprotective drug vinpocetine: a summary of evidencesJ Neurol Sci.(2002 Nov 15)
25.^Effects of vinpocetine on the redistribution of cerebral blood flow and glucose metabolism in chronic ischemic stroke patients: a PET study
26.^Hua L, Weisan P, Jiayu L, Ying ZPreparation, evaluation, and NMR characterization of vinpocetine microemulsion for transdermal deliveryDrug Dev Ind Pharm.(2004 Jul)
29.^Chiu PJ, Tetzloff G, Ahn HS, Sybertz EJComparative effects of vinpocetine and 8-Br-cyclic GMP on the contraction and 45Ca-fluxes in the rabbit aortaAm J Hypertens.(1988 Jul)
30.^Ahn HS, Crim W, Romano M, Sybertz E, Pitts BEffects of selective inhibitors on cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases of rabbit aortaBiochem Pharmacol.(1989 Oct 1)
31.^Hagiwara M, Endo T, Hidaka HEffects of vinpocetine on cyclic nucleotide metabolism in vascular smooth muscleBiochem Pharmacol.(1984 Feb 1)
32.^Rosdy B, Balázs M, Szporny LBiochemical effects of ethyl apovincaminateArzneimittelforschung.(1976)
33.^Dunkern TR, Hatzelmann ACharacterization of inhibitors of phosphodiesterase 1C on a human cellular systemFEBS J.(2007 Sep)
34.^Yu MC, Chen JH, Lai CY, Han CY, Ko WCLuteolin, a non-selective competitive inhibitor of phosphodiesterases 1-5, displaced {3H}-rolipram from high-affinity rolipram binding sites and reversed xylazine/ketamine-induced anesthesiaEur J Pharmacol.(2010 Feb 10)
35.^Filgueiras CC, Krahe TE, Medina AEPhosphodiesterase type 1 inhibition improves learning in rats exposed to alcohol during the third trimester equivalent of human gestationNeurosci Lett.(2010 Apr 12)
36.^Lindgren SH, Andersson TL, Vinge E, Andersson KEEffects of isozyme-selective phosphodiesterase inhibitors on rat aorta and human platelets: smooth muscle tone, platelet aggregation and cAMP levelsActa Physiol Scand.(1990 Oct)
37.^Zhou X, Dong XW, Crona J, Maguire M, Priestley TVinpocetine is a potent blocker of rat NaV1.8 tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channelsJ Pharmacol Exp Ther.(2003 Aug)
38.^Vinpocetine is as potent as phenytoin to block voltage-gated Na+ channels in rat cortical neurons
39.^Erdo SA, Molnár P, Lakics V, Bence JZ, Tömösközi ZVincamine and vincanol are potent blockers of voltage-gated Na+ channelsEur J Pharmacol.(1996 Oct 24)
40.^Tretter L, Adam-Vizi VThe neuroprotective drug vinpocetine prevents veratridine-induced {Na+}i and {Ca2+}i rise in synaptosomesNeuroreport.(1998 Jun 1)
41.^Kaneko S, Takahashi H, Satoh MThe use of Xenopus oocytes to evaluate drugs affecting brain Ca2+ channels: effects of bifemelane and several nootropic agentsEur J Pharmacol.(1990 Jul 31)
42.^Vas A, Christer H, Sóvágó J, Johan S, Cselényi Z, Kiss B, Kárpáti E, Lars F, Gulyás BHuman positron emission tomography with oral 11C-vinpocetineOrv Hetil.(2003 Nov 16)
43.^Sitges M, Nekrassov VVinpocetine selectively inhibits neurotransmitter release triggered by sodium channel activationNeurochem Res.(1999 Dec)
44.^Solntseva EI, Bukanova JVEnhancement of low-threshold A-current of the neuronal membrane by vinpocetineMembr Cell Biol.(2000)
45.^Bukanova JV, Solntseva EI, Skrebitsky VGSelective suppression of the slow-inactivating potassium currents by nootropics in molluscan neuronsInt J Neuropsychopharmacol.(2002 Sep)
46.^Solntseva EI, Bukanova JV, Skrebitsky VGThe nootropic drug vinpocetine modulates different types of potassium currents in molluscan neuronsComp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol.(2001 Feb)
47.^Bukanova YuV, Solntseva EINootropic agent vinpocetine blocks delayed rectified potassium currents more strongly than high-threshold calcium currentsNeurosci Behav Physiol.(1998 Mar-Apr)
48.^Jeon KI, Xu X, Aizawa T, Lim JH, Jono H, Kwon DS, Abe J, Berk BC, Li JD, Yan CVinpocetine inhibits NF-kappaB-dependent inflammation via an IKK-dependent but PDE-independent mechanismProc Natl Acad Sci U S A.(2010 May 25)
49.^Castedo M, Perfettini JL, Kroemer GMitochondrial apoptosis and the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor: a novel target for viral and pharmacological manipulationJ Exp Med.(2002 Nov 4)
50.^Casellas P, Galiegue S, Basile ASPeripheral benzodiazepine receptors and mitochondrial functionNeurochem Int.(2002 May)
51.^Tárnok K, Kiss E, Luiten PG, Nyakas C, Tihanyi K, Schlett K, Eisel ULEffects of Vinpocetine on mitochondrial function and neuroprotection in primary cortical neuronsNeurochem Int.(2008 Dec)
52.^Pereira C, Agostinho P, Oliveira CRVinpocetine attenuates the metabolic dysfunction induced by amyloid beta-peptides in PC12 cellsFree Radic Res.(2000 Nov)
53.^Szilágyi G, Nagy Z, Balkay L, Boros I, Emri M, Lehel S, Márián T, Molnár T, Szakáll S, Trón L, Bereczki D, Csiba L, Fekete I, Kerényi L, Galuska L, Varga J, Bönöczk P, Vas A, Gulyás BEffects of vinpocetine on the redistribution of cerebral blood flow and glucose metabolism in chronic ischemic stroke patients: a PET studyJ Neurol Sci.(2005 Mar 15)
54.^Szakáll S, Boros I, Balkay L, Emri M, Fekete I, Kerényi L, Lehel S, Márián T, Molnár T, Varga J, Galuska L, Trón L, Bereczki D, Csiba L, Gulyás BCerebral effects of a single dose of intravenous vinpocetine in chronic stroke patients: a PET studyJ Neuroimaging.(1998 Oct)
56.^The effect of an acute infusion of vincamine and ethyl apovincaminate on cerebral blood flow in healthy volunteers
57.^Bönöczk P, Panczel G, Nagy ZVinpocetine increases cerebral blood flow and oxygenation in stroke patients: a near infrared spectroscopy and transcranial Doppler studyEur J Ultrasound.(2002 Jun)
58.^Kemény V, Molnár S, Andrejkovics M, Makai A, Csiba LAcute and chronic effects of vinpocetine on cerebral hemodynamics and neuropsychological performance in multi-infarct patientsJ Clin Pharmacol.(2005 Sep)
59.^Kuzuya FEffects of vinpocetine on platelet aggregability and erythrocyte deformabilityTher Hung.(1985)
60.^Osawa M, Maruyama SEffects of TCV-3B (vinpocetine) on blood viscosity in ischemic cerebrovascular diseasesTher Hung.(1985)
61.^Szobor A, Klein MEthyl apovincaminate therapy in neurovascular diseasesArzneimittelforschung.(1976)
62.^Medina AE, Krahe TE, Ramoa ASRestoration of neuronal plasticity by a phosphodiesterase type 1 inhibitor in a model of fetal alcohol exposureJ Neurosci.(2006 Jan 18)
63.^van Staveren WC, Markerink-van Ittersum M, Steinbusch HW, de Vente JThe effects of phosphodiesterase inhibition on cyclic GMP and cyclic AMP accumulation in the hippocampus of the ratBrain Res.(2001 Jan 12)
64.^Dinerman JL, Dawson TM, Schell MJ, Snowman A, Snyder SHEndothelial nitric oxide synthase localized to hippocampal pyramidal cells: implications for synaptic plasticityProc Natl Acad Sci U S A.(1994 May 10)
65.^1-Oxa-3,8-diazaspiro{4.5}decan-2-one derivatives with a potent inhibitory effect on neural Ca-uptake and protecting action against TET-induced brain edema and memory and learning deficits
66.^Paróczai M, Kiss B, Kárpáti EEffect of RGH-2716 on learning and memory deficits of young and aged rats in water-labyrinthBrain Res Bull.(1998 Mar 15)
67.^Gaál L, Molnár PEffect of vinpocetine on noradrenergic neurons in rat locus coeruleusEur J Pharmacol.(1990 Oct 23)
68.^Lemon N, Aydin-Abidin S, Funke K, Manahan-Vaughan DLocus coeruleus activation facilitates memory encoding and induces hippocampal LTD that depends on beta-adrenergic receptor activationCereb Cortex.(2009 Dec)
69.^Ishihara K, Katsuki H, Sugimura M, Satoh MIdebenone and vinpocetine augment long-term potentiation in hippocampal slices in the guinea pigNeuropharmacology.(1989 Jun)
70.^Harley CNoradrenergic and locus coeruleus modulation of the perforant path-evoked potential in rat dentate gyrus supports a role for the locus coeruleus in attentional and memorial processesProg Brain Res.(1991)
71.^Nyakas C, Felszeghy K, Szabó R, Keijser JN, Luiten PG, Szombathelyi Z, Tihanyi KNeuroprotective effects of vinpocetine and its major metabolite cis-apovincaminic acid on NMDA-induced neurotoxicity in a rat entorhinal cortex lesion modelCNS Neurosci Ther.(2009 Summer)
72.^DeNoble VJ, Repetti SJ, Gelpke LW, Wood LM, Keim KLVinpocetine: nootropic effects on scopolamine-induced and hypoxia-induced retrieval deficits of a step-through passive avoidance response in ratsPharmacol Biochem Behav.(1986 Apr)
73.^Deshmukh R, Sharma V, Mehan S, Sharma N, Bedi KLAmelioration of intracerebroventricular streptozotocin induced cognitive dysfunction and oxidative stress by vinpocetine -- a PDE1 inhibitorEur J Pharmacol.(2009 Oct 12)
74.^Bhatti JZ, Hindmarch IVinpocetine effects on cognitive impairments produced by flunitrazepamInt Clin Psychopharmacol.(1987 Oct)
75.^DeNoble VJVinpocetine enhances retrieval of a step-through passive avoidance response in ratsPharmacol Biochem Behav.(1987 Jan)
76.^Subhan Z, Hindmarch IPsychopharmacological effects of vinpocetine in normal healthy volunteersEur J Clin Pharmacol.(1985)
77.^Amen DG, Wu JC, Taylor D, Willeumier KReversing brain damage in former NFL players: implications for traumatic brain injury and substance abuse rehabilitationJ Psychoactive Drugs.(2011 Jan-Mar)
78.^Polich J, Gloria RCognitive effects of a Ginkgo biloba/vinpocetine compound in normal adults: systematic assessment of perception, attention and memoryHum Psychopharmacol.(2001 Jul)
79.^Lai J, Gold MS, Kim CS, Bian D, Ossipov MH, Hunter JC, Porreca FInhibition of neuropathic pain by decreased expression of the tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channel, NaV1.8Pain.(2002 Jan)
80.^Lai J, Hunter JC, Ossipov MH, Porreca FBlockade of neuropathic pain by antisense targeting of tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channels in sensory neuronsMethods Enzymol.(2000)
81.^Gold MS, Weinreich D, Kim CS, Wang R, Treanor J, Porreca F, Lai JRedistribution of Na(V)1.8 in uninjured axons enables neuropathic painJ Neurosci.(2003 Jan 1)
83.^Mouradian RD, Sessler FM, Waterhouse BDNoradrenergic potentiation of excitatory transmitter action in cerebrocortical slices: evidence for mediation by an alpha 1 receptor-linked second messenger pathwayBrain Res.(1991 Apr 12)
84.^Devilbiss DM, Waterhouse BDNorepinephrine exhibits two distinct profiles of action on sensory cortical neuron responses to excitatory synaptic stimuliSynapse.(2000 Sep 15)
85.^Chikvaidze VN, Nikuradze VOThe role of adrenoreceptors in the mechanism of pharmacological action of cavintonUkr Biokhim Zh.(1987 May-Jun)
86.^Trejo F, Nekrassov V, Sitges MCharacterization of vinpocetine effects on DA and DOPAC release in striatal isolated nerve endingsBrain Res.(2001 Aug 3)
87.^Sitges M, Aldana BI, Chiu LM, Nekrassov VCharacterization of phenytoin, carbamazepine, vinpocetine and clorgyline simultaneous effects on sodium channels and catecholamine metabolism in rat striatal nerve endingsNeurochem Res.(2009 Mar)
89.^Kiss B, Cai NS, Erdö SLVinpocetine preferentially antagonizes quisqualate/AMPA receptor responses: evidence from release and ligand binding studiesEur J Pharmacol.(1991 Dec 10)
90.^Westphalen RI, Stadlin ADopamine uptake blockers nullify methamphetamine-induced decrease in dopamine uptake and plasma membrane potential in rat striatal synaptosomesAnn N Y Acad Sci.(2000 Sep)
91.^Herrera-Mundo N, Sitges MVinpocetine and α-tocopherol prevent the increase in DA and oxidative stress induced by 3-NPA in striatum isolated nerve endingsJ Neurochem.(2013 Jan)
92.^Alexi T, Hughes PE, Faull RL, Williams CE3-Nitropropionic acid's lethal triplet: cooperative pathways of neurodegenerationNeuroreport.(1998 Aug 3)
93.^Reynolds DS, Carter RJ, Morton AJDopamine modulates the susceptibility of striatal neurons to 3-nitropropionic acid in the rat model of Huntington's diseaseJ Neurosci.(1998 Dec 1)
94.^Villarán RF, Tomás-Camardiel M, de Pablos RM, Santiago M, Herrera AJ, Navarro A, Machado A, Cano JEndogenous dopamine enhances the neurotoxicity of 3-nitropropionic acid in the striatum through the increase of mitochondrial respiratory inhibition and free radicals productionNeurotoxicology.(2008 Mar)
95.^Zaitone SA, Abo-Elmatty DM, Elshazly SMPiracetam and vinpocetine ameliorate rotenone-induced Parkinsonism in ratsIndian J Pharmacol.(2012 Nov-Dec)
96.^Erdö SL, Cai NS, Wolff JR, Kiss BVinpocetin protects against excitotoxic cell death in primary cultures of rat cerebral cortexEur J Pharmacol.(1990 Oct 23)
97.^Biró K, Kárpáti E, Szporny LProtective activity of ethyl apovincaminate on ischaemic anoxia of the brainArzneimittelforschung.(1976)
98.^King GAProtective effects of vinpocetine and structurally related drugs on the lethal consequences of hypoxia in miceArch Int Pharmacodyn Ther.(1987 Apr)
100.^Kaneko S, Sugimura M, Inoue T, Satoh MEffects of several cerebroprotective drugs on NMDA channel function: evaluation using Xenopus oocytes and 3HMK-801 bindingEur J Pharmacol.(1991 Jun 19)
101.^Sitges M, Galván E, Nekrassov VVinpocetine blockade of sodium channels inhibits the rise in sodium and calcium induced by 4-aminopyridine in synaptosomesNeurochem Int.(2005 Jun)
102.^Sitges M, Chiu LM, Nekrassov VSingle and combined effects of carbamazepine and vinpocetine on depolarization-induced changes in Na+, Ca2+ and glutamate release in hippocampal isolated nerve endingsNeurochem Int.(2006 Jul)
103.^Sitges M, Chiu LM, Guarneros A, Nekrassov VEffects of carbamazepine, phenytoin, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, topiramate and vinpocetine on Na+ channel-mediated release of {3H}glutamate in hippocampal nerve endingsNeuropharmacology.(2007 Feb)
104.^Sitges M, Guarneros A, Nekrassov VEffects of carbamazepine, phenytoin, valproic acid, oxcarbazepine, lamotrigine, topiramate and vinpocetine on the presynaptic Ca2+ channel-mediated release of {3H}glutamate: comparison with the Na+ channel-mediated releaseNeuropharmacology.(2007 Dec)
105.^Tapia R, Sitges MEffect of 4-aminopyridine on transmitter release in synaptosomesBrain Res.(1982 Nov 4)
106.^Galván E, Sitges MCharacterization of the participation of sodium channels on the rise in Na+ induced by 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) in synaptosomesNeurochem Res.(2004 Feb)
107.^Nekrassov V, Sitges MComparison of acute, chronic and post-treatment effects of carbamazepine and vinpocetine on hearing loss and seizures induced by 4-aminopyridineClin Neurophysiol.(2008 Nov)
108.^Sitges M, Sanchez-Tafolla BM, Chiu LM, Aldana BI, Guarneros AVinpocetine inhibits glutamate release induced by the convulsive agent 4-aminopyridine more potently than several antiepileptic drugsEpilepsy Res.(2011 Oct)
109.^Nekrassov V, Sitges MVinpocetine inhibits the epileptic cortical activity and auditory alterations induced by pentylenetetrazole in the guinea pig in vivoEpilepsy Res.(2004 Jun)
110.^Sitges M, Nekrassov VVinpocetine prevents 4-aminopyridine-induced changes in the EEG, the auditory brainstem responses and hearingClin Neurophysiol.(2004 Dec)
111.^Braestrup C, Squires RFSpecific benzodiazepine receptors in rat brain characterized by high-affinity (3H)diazepam bindingProc Natl Acad Sci U S A.(1977 Sep)
112.^Gulyás B, Halldin C, Vas A, Banati RB, Shchukin E, Finnema S, Tarkainen J, Tihanyi K, Szilágyi G, Farde L{11C}vinpocetine: a prospective peripheral benzodiazepine receptor ligand for primate PET studiesJ Neurol Sci.(2005 Mar 15)
114.^Kassiou M, Meikle SR, Banati RBLigands for peripheral benzodiazepine binding sites in glial cellsBrain Res Brain Res Rev.(2005 Apr)
115.^Gulyás B, Tóth M, Schain M, Airaksinen A, Vas A, Kostulas K, Lindström P, Hillert J, Halldin CEvolution of microglial activation in ischaemic core and peri-infarct regions after stroke: a PET study with the TSPO molecular imaging biomarker {((11))C}vinpocetineJ Neurol Sci.(2012 Sep 15)
116.^Lang SThe role of peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (PBRs) in CNS pathophysiologyCurr Med Chem.(2002 Aug)
117.^Papadopoulos VPeripheral benzodiazepine receptor: structure and function in health and diseaseAnn Pharm Fr.(2003 Jan)
118.^Chen MK, Guilarte TRTranslocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO): molecular sensor of brain injury and repairPharmacol Ther.(2008 Apr)
120.^Zhao YY, Yu JZ, Li QY, Ma CG, Lu CZ, Xiao BGTSPO-specific ligand Vinpocetine exerts a neuroprotective effect by suppressing microglial inflammationNeuron Glia Biol.(2011 May)
121.^Mouton PR, Long JM, Lei DL, Howard V, Jucker M, Calhoun ME, Ingram DKAge and gender effects on microglia and astrocyte numbers in brains of miceBrain Res.(2002 Nov 22)
122.^Peters AStructural changes in the normally aging cerebral cortex of primatesProg Brain Res.(2002)
123.^Batarseh A, Papadopoulos VRegulation of translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO) expression in health and disease statesMol Cell Endocrinol.(2010 Oct 7)
124.^Gulyás B, Vas A, Tóth M, Takano A, Varrone A, Cselényi Z, Schain M, Mattsson P, Halldin CAge and disease related changes in the translocator protein (TSPO) system in the human brain: positron emission tomography measurements with {11C}vinpocetineNeuroimage.(2011 Jun 1)
125.^Venneti S, Lopresti BJ, Wiley CAThe peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (Translocator protein 18kDa) in microglia: from pathology to imagingProg Neurobiol.(2006 Dec)
126.^Papadopoulos V, Lecanu LTranslocator protein (18 kDa) TSPO: an emerging therapeutic target in neurotraumaExp Neurol.(2009 Sep)
127.^Cai Y, Li JD, Yan CVinpocetine attenuates lipid accumulation and atherosclerosis formationBiochem Biophys Res Commun.(2013 May 10)
128.^Chen J, Kuhlencordt PJ, Astern J, Gyurko R, Huang PLHypertension does not account for the accelerated atherosclerosis and development of aneurysms in male apolipoprotein e/endothelial nitric oxide synthase double knockout miceCirculation.(2001 Nov 13)
129.^Mitra S, Goyal T, Mehta JLOxidized LDL, LOX-1 and atherosclerosisCardiovasc Drugs Ther.(2011 Oct)
130.^Kim D, Rybalkin SD, Pi X, Wang Y, Zhang C, Munzel T, Beavo JA, Berk BC, Yan CUpregulation of phosphodiesterase 1A1 expression is associated with the development of nitrate toleranceCirculation.(2001 Nov 6)
131.^Sata M, Saiura A, Kunisato A, Tojo A, Okada S, Tokuhisa T, Hirai H, Makuuchi M, Hirata Y, Nagai RHematopoietic stem cells differentiate into vascular cells that participate in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosisNat Med.(2002 Apr)
133.^Cai Y, Knight WE, Guo S, Li JD, Knight PA, Yan CVinpocetine suppresses pathological vascular remodeling by inhibiting vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migrationJ Pharmacol Exp Ther.(2012 Nov)
134.^Sundaresan M, Yu ZX, Ferrans VJ, Irani K, Finkel TRequirement for generation of H2O2 for platelet-derived growth factor signal transductionScience.(1995 Oct 13)
135.^Abdel Salam OM, Oraby FH, Hassan NSVinpocetine ameliorates acute hepatic damage caused by administration of carbon tetrachloride in ratsActa Biol Hung.(2007 Dec)
136.^Nekrassov V, Sitges MVinpocetine protects from aminoglycoside antibiotic-induced hearing loss in guinea pig in vivoBrain Res.(2000 Jun 23)
137.^Huang EW, Xue SJ, Zhang Z, Zhou JG, Guan YY, Tang YBVinpocetine inhibits breast cancer cells growth in vitro and in vivoApoptosis.(2012 Oct)
138.^Münzel T, Heitzer T, Kurz S, Harrison DG, Luhman C, Pape L, Olschewski M, Just HDissociation of coronary vascular tolerance and neurohormonal adjustments during long-term nitroglycerin therapy in patients with stable coronary artery diseaseJ Am Coll Cardiol.(1996 Feb)
139.^Münzel T, Daiber A, Gori TNitrate therapy: new aspects concerning molecular action and toleranceCirculation.(2011 May 17)
140.^Feil R, Kleppisch TNO/cGMP-dependent modulation of synaptic transmissionHandb Exp Pharmacol.(2008)
141.^Sonnenburg WK, Seger D, Kwak KS, Huang J, Charbonneau H, Beavo JAIdentification of inhibitory and calmodulin-binding domains of the PDE1A1 and PDE1A2 calmodulin-stimulated cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterasesJ Biol Chem.(1995 Dec 29)
142.^Sharma RK, Wang JHDifferential regulation of bovine brain calmodulin-dependent cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase isoenzymes by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase and calmodulin-dependent phosphataseProc Natl Acad Sci U S A.(1985 May)
144.^Hutter K, Deli L, Csomós I{Successful resuscitation from sudden death caused by Cavinton}Orv Hetil.(1980 Feb 17)
145.^Dany F, Merle L, Goudoud JC, Liozon F, Blanc P, Bouvot JC, Nicot G, Dangoumau J{Cardiac toxicity of vincamine: a seven cases report of ventricular arrhythmias by parenteral administration of vincamine (author's transl)}Therapie.(1981 Jan-Feb)
148.^Svirbely JL, Szent-Györgyi APrenatal Developmental Toxicity Studies Of Vinpocetine In Sprague Dawley (Hsd:Sprague Dawley SD) Rats And New Zealand White (Hra:NZW SPF) RabbitsBiochem J.(1932)
149.^Waidyanatha S, Toy H, South N, Gibbs S, Mutlu E, Burback B, McIntyre BS, Catlin NSystemic exposure of vinpocetine in pregnant Sprague Dawley rats following repeated oral exposure: An investigation of fetal transferToxicol Appl Pharmacol.(2018 Jan 1)