Quick Navigation

Phenylethylamine

A trace amine and influencer of many of the 'happy hormones' such as dopamine and serotonin, β-phenylethylamine is an important molecule in the brain with limited supplemental usage due to being rapidly broken down into inactive components.

Our evidence-based analysis on phenylethylamine features 84 unique references to scientific papers.

Kamal Patel
Research analysis led by Kamal Patel.
All content reviewed by the Examine.com Team. Published: Apr 3, 2014
Last Updated:

Learn which supplements work (and which don’t) to achieve your health goals

Enter your email to get our free mini-course on supplements.

100% backed by science, we take an independent and unbiased approach to figure out what works (and what's a waste of time and money). Arm yourself with the knowledge needed to make the right choices to improve your health.



Things To Know & Note

Is a Form Of

Other Functions:

Primary Function:

Also Known As

PEA, β-phenylethylamine, phenethylamine, β-phenethylamine, Benzeneethanamine

Caution Notice

Examine.com Medical Disclaimer

Scientific Research on Phenylethylamine

Click on any below to expand the corresponding section. Click on to collapse it.

Click here to fully expand all sections or here to fully collapse them.

1Sources and Composition

1.1Sources and Structure

β-phenylethylamine (2-phenylethylamine) is a small amine containing alkaloid synonymous with phenethylamine and the acronym PEA; in the human body it has a neurotransmitter role[1] and is known as a trace amine due to its low quantity relative to other bioactive amino acids.[2]

Structurally speaking, the basic phenethylamine backbone (2-phenylethylamine) contains a benzene ring with a lone nitrogen group bound via a short two-carbon chain; if a methylation were to occur at the final carbon that is attached to the nitrogen group then the resulting backbone is the base amphetamine structure.[1] The phenylethylamine backbone differs from catecholamines due to having no hydroxylations on its backbone, and synthetic modifications of the backbone with hydroxylations and methylation results in a variety of phenylethylamine-based hallucinogenic drugs (ie. mescaline).

It can be found naturally occurring as an endogenous amine in various algae[3] and bacteria,[4] and similar to alkaloids such as tyramine, octopamine, and hordenine it is seen as a biogenic amine.[4] It can be found in natto secondary to the bacteria used to ferment it,[4] and has also been detected in eggs[5] as well as chocolate where it is produced during thermal decomposition of L-phenylalanine (it's parent amino acid).[6]

β-phenylethylamine can also be produced from dietary L-phenylalanine which is estimated to be around 4g in the average diet (due to it being a component of dietary protein),[7] although not all L-phenylalanine is destined to produce β-phenylethylamine as it can be converted into L-Tyrosine via phenylalanine hydroxylase.[8][9]

1.2Physicochemical Properties

β-phenylethylamine has a molar mass of 121.17964 g/mol and has high solubility in double distilled water (ddH2O) and in plasma, although low solubility in lipid.[1]

1.3Biological Significance

β-phenylethylamine is produced in the human body after a decarboxylation process from the amino acid L-phenylalanine,[1] known to be mediated by aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC).[10]

β-phenylethylamine is produced from L-phenylalanine, which is also known to by converted into L-Tyrosine via the phenylalanine hydroxylase enzyme.[8][9] Chronic inhibition of this enzyme or genetic insufficiency results in a backlog of L-phenylalanine, resulting in a form of hyperphenylalaninemia[11] and is involved in some cases of phenylketonuria (PKU).[12] Persons in this situation tend to be more sensitive to most biogenic amines including β-phenylethylamine.

1.4Formulations and Variants

R-β-Methylphenylethylamine (1-amino-2-phenylpropane), also known simply as β-Methylphenethylamine or β-Me-PEA, is a PEA structure where a methyl group occurs on the first carbon extending out from the benzene backbone; due to the carbon being placed here rather than the second carbon out, it is not classified as an amphetamine and has been isolated from the leaves of acacia berlandieri (Guajillo; not the pepper).[13][14]

N-Methylphenethylamine (NMPEA; N-Methyl-β-phenylethylamine) is a differently structured metabolite of PEA where the methylation occurs on the amine itself, and NMPEA is also not classified as an amphetamine.[15]

There are two variations of the basic phenylethylamine structure involving methylation, but neither of which are methylated on the second carbon (which would be an amphetamine); one methylates on the first carbon from the benzene ring whereas the other directly methylates the amine group

2Molecular Targets

2.1Trace Amine Receptors

A collection of intracellular receptors known as trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) or simply trace amine (TA) receptors are known to respond to the variety of amino acids known as trace amines.[16] These receptors are known to be expressed in both rats and humans although their response to drugs may differ[17] due to somewhat low homology (76–78%)[18][19] although recombinant human TAARs (rhTAAR) and human TAAR (hTAAR) have high homology (96.9%).[20] These receptors are intracellular[21] and associated with the membrane fraction of cells excluding the cell surface membrane despite their similarities to adrenergic receptors (which are at the cell surface membrane),[22] thought to be due to the nine-amino acid long proximal terminal of adrenergic receptors which, when added to TAAR1, can stabilize it in the cell surface membrane.[23]

Trace amine receptors are intracellular receptors which respond to the neurotransmitters that are in lower amounts without their own receptors. These neurotransmitters include tyramine, tryptamine, octopamine, β-phenylethylamine, and 3-Iodothyronamine amongst others, and this signalling pathway highly interacts with catecholamine (dopamine, adrenaline, noradrenaline) signalling

The TA1 receptor (also known as TAAR1[24]) is a G-protein coupled receptor with structural hallmarks that parallel the rhodopsin/β-adrenergic receptor superfamily[2] that responds to trace amines including tyramine and β-phenylethylamine, and after binding produces cAMP.[18] TA2 (aka. GPR58 or TAAR2[25]) is a similar receptor that also responds to β-phenylethylamine but instead of tyramine it responds to tryptamine,[18] and both the TA1 and TA2 receptors have mRNA expressed in brain regions (substantia nigra/ventral tegmental area, locus coeruleus, and dorsal raphe nucleus) where β-phenylethylamine is known to exert catecholaminergic activity.[18]

This receptor (TA1) is known to have a baseline activity without any ligand, and β-phenylethylamine is more potent than other TA1 agonists (tyramine and octopamine) at inducing cAMP a concentration of 1µM (but comparable at 100nM or less).[26]

These trace amine receptors are also known to be a molecular target of entactogenic drugs such as amphetamine, tenamphetamine (Molly), LSD,[21] Mescaline, MDMA,[20] and endogenous hallucinogens.[27]

β-phenylethylamine is an endogenous agonist at the TA1 and TA2 receptors, with slightly more potency than other trace amines. Actions at this receptor are thought to explain the roles of β-phenylethylamine in interacting with adrenergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission

2.2Monoamine Transporters

Secondary to the activation of TA1 (previous section) β-phenylethylamine has been noted to both reduce the uptake of and increase efflux of various neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline in brain synaptosomes at 0.1-1μM (no activity at 10nM);[28] this did not occur in cells where TA1 was genetically ablated, was unrelated to autoreceptor function (which regulate receptor function[29][30]) and the efflux was blocked by inhibiting the transporters.[28]

3Pharmacology

3.1Neurological Distribution

β-phenylethylamine (PEA) is a naturally occurring biogenic amine in the mammalian brain although it is considered trace as its overall amount totals around 1-5% of the level of catecholamines, thought to be due to limited synthesis with rapid metabolism.[31][32][33] Injections of β-phenylethylamine in the periphery seem to be taken up in most brain areas evenly,[34] and at rest β-phenylethylamine seems to be spread across most brain regions although highest levels are in areas with a higher catecholamine presence (nigrostriatal and mesolimbic regions such as the caudate–putamen, olfactory tubercles and nucleus accumbens).[10]

β-phenylethylamine appears to cross the blood brain barrier after arterial injection[35] showing a brain uptake index of 83+/-6% (water as reference at 100%) comparable to amphetamine and suggesting passive diffusion rather than transporter-mediated uptake.[34]

Within the brain (not serum), β-phenylethylamine is estimated to have a half-life of around half a minute due to rapid metabolism by MAO enzymes (primarily MAO-B).[7]

3.2Cellular Kinetics

β-phenylethylamine is known to be a substrate of the dopamine transporter (DAT), and overexpressing DAT in cells increases β-phenylethylamine uptake[20] and its actions on its molecular target (TA1)[20] while blocking the DAT can inhibit some TA1-dependent actions of β-phenylethylamine.[36]

3.3Metabolism

β-phenylethylamine (PEA) is primarily metabolized by the monoamine oxidase B enzyme (MAO-B)[37] although both enzymes have the potential to metabolize it.[38] This deamination process by MAO enzymes results in production of the byproduct phenylacetic acid[39] and at least neurologically it does not appear to be active in the same way β-phenylethylamine is.[40]

Based on studies injecting β-phenylethylamine into the dog, the half-life of PEA appeared to be in the range of 6-16 minutes depending on dose[15] and N-methyl-β-phenylethylamine (NMPEA) appears to follow suit in this rapid metabolism[15] and is also a known substrate for MAO-B.[41]

β-phenylethylamine appears to be primarily metabolized by MAO-B, and this metabolism appears to occur quite rapidly in serum

Interconversions may also happen in cells, as nonspecific N-methyltransferase enzymes can convert β-phenylethylamine into N-Methylphenethylamine (NMPEA) and dopamine-β-hydroxylase can convert PEA into a phenylethanolamine (PEOH);[33][42] PEOH can be further methylated by the specific enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) which is the enzyme that converts noradrenaline into adrenaline.[43][44] It should be noted that PEOH is also a substrate for both MAO enzymes[45] with specificity for MAO-B.[46]

β-phenylethylamine produced in neurons (from L-phenylalanine) can be used by alternate enzymes as an intermediate in a few pathways involved in neurotransmission

4Neurology

4.1Adrenergic Neurotransmission

Catecholaminergic neurons tend to express a high level of aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) which produces β-phenylethylamine (PEA) from its parent amino acid L-phenylalanine, while the enzyme of metabolism (MAO-B) tends to be expressed in high levels in astrocytes[47] but there was a failure to express high levels of MAO-B in catecholaminrgic neurons (locus coeruleus and substantia nigra) despite detecting MAO-B in serotonergic neurons.[47] This has been interpreted as a potential higher concentration of PEA within catecholaminergic neurons than is generally assumed based on assessing brain wet weight.[7]

The enzymes of β-phenylethylamine synthesis are located alongside those of catecholamine synthesis, and due to a relatively lower amount of its enzyme of metabolism in cells that have a high noradrenergic presence it is thought to accumulate to a degree and be more intracellularly active in these brain regions

At the level of the adrenergic receptor, β-phenylethylamine (and tyramine) are partial allosteric antagonists of both the β1 and β2[26] (noncompetitive against the agonist isoprenaline[21]) with an Emax of 403+/-54nM.[26]

PEA is thought to be an antagonist at the α-adrenergic receptor albeit at impractically high concentrations (100µM).[48]

At the level of the adrenergic receptors, β-phenylethylamine appears to be an allosteric and partial inhibitor

4.2Dopaminergic Neurotransmission

β-phenylethylamine synthesis rates in dopaminergic neurons parallel that of dopamine, although striatal concentrations seem to be about 3-fold lower due to elevated MAO-B metabolism.[10]

β-phenylethylamine appears to be localized around dopaminergic neurons, although it is at a lower concentration than dopamine due to its rapid metabolism by MAO-B

β-phenylethylamine has been noted to increase dopamine secretion when taken up into dopaminergic neurons, secondary to the dopamine transporter (DAT; as blocking the transporter ablates the effects of PEA);[36] the vesicular monoamine transporter not playing a role in vitro[36] and the VMAT inhibitor reserpine not blocking the dopaminergic actions of β-phenylethylamine.[49] This may be due to β-phenylethylamine being a substrate for DAT, and increasing dopamine secretion secondary to TA1 activation.[28] Similar to the actions expected of a TA1 agonist, β-phenylethylamine has been repeatedly shown to induce dopamine secretion in vitro[50] and in vivo[51][52] and to inhibit dopamine uptake.[53][54]

β-phenylethylamine appears to have an additional role in activating the D2 autoreceptor at physiological concentrations, acting to regulate excessive firing.[55][56]

Secondary to activation of the trace amine receptor (TA1), β-phenylethylamine appears to cause an increase in dopamine efflux paired with a reduction in dopamine uptake into neurons

4.3Serotonergic Neurotransmission

β-phenylethylamine appears to be 100-fold less potent in releasing serotonin from the nuclear accumbens when compared to its ability to release dopamine when tested in the range of 1-100µM.[57]

Serotonergic neurons appear to express MAO-B within the neuron, unlike catecholaminergic neurons,[47] suggesting that accumulation of β-phenylethylamine within the neuron is not as relevant.[7]

4.4Addiction and Obsession

β-phenylethylamine is thought to be related to addiction since, in the treatment of cocaine addiction, 'agonist therapy' (using agents that increase synaptic dopamine) appear to be beneficial[58][59] but pure dopaminergic agonists have their own addictive potential due to activation of the mesolimbic reward pathway. As serotonin suppresses this particular aspect of dopaminergic activity,[60][61] mixed agonists acting on both serotonin and dopamine are thought to be beneficial for the treatment of stimulant and alcohol addiction;[62][63] β-phenylethylamine is known to possess agonistic properties towards both of these neurotransmitters.

4.5Depression

In subjects exercising on a treadmill for half an hour at 70% of their maximal heart rate (in the middle of the 60-80% range where increases in mood are reported[64]) the amount of phenylacetic acid in the urine was increased albeit to a highly variable degree; this was thought to be a possible factor in the anti-depressant actions of exercise.[65]

5Inflammation and Immunology

5.1Immunosuppression

The trace amine receptors that β-phenylethylamine is known to influence (TAAR1 and 2) appear to be expressed on leukocytes[66] as well as both T and B cells,[25] and activation of both receptors by β-phenylethylamine at an EC50 of 0.52+/-0.05nM causes chemotaxis of the immune cells;[25] this is a concentration already lower than human plasma at rest (14.5nM[67]) and thus appears to be physiologically relevant. Similar actions were also noted with the trace amines T1AM (3-Monoiodothyronamine, EC50 0.25+/-0.04nM[25]) and tyramine (0.52+/-0.05 nM[25]) which are also within physiological concentrations.[67]

Trace amino acids appear to be able to influence leukocyte migration at a concentration which is relevant even without nutritional supplementation

5.2Natural Killer Cells

TAAR1 and TAAR2 do not appear to be highly expressed in natural killer cells.[25]

5.3Bacterial Interactions

β-phenylethylamine has been able to reduce biofilm and microbial cell count from E. coli O157:H7 when incubated with infected meat products, a potency seemingly greater than most other agents tested.[68]

6Interactions with Hormones

6.1Prolactin

Trace amines, including octopamine[69][70] and p-tyramine (59% inhibition at 1µM,[70] some efficacy at 10nM[69]) as well as phenylethylamine can inhibit prolactin secretion. The inhibitory effects of phenylethylamine are dose-dependent in the range of 10nM upwards to 10µM,[69] and while this effect requires dopamine receptors to be functioning[69] trace amines do not displace dopamine receptor ligands at this concentration.[70][69] It is thought that trace amines cause a secretion of dopamine which then acts on its receptors to reduce prolactin (a known phenomena[71]).

7Other Medical Conditions

7.1Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's Disease (PD) is pathologically characterized by dopaminergic insufficiency and degeneration in the brain region known as the substantia nigra, resulting in a loss of function in the nigrostriatal pathway and dopamine content of the caudate-putamen.[72] The nigrostriatal pathway locally synthesizes[73][74] and is modulated[49] by trace amines such as β-phenylethylamine.

One study noted a negative correlation between cerebrospinal fluid content of β-phenylethylamine and the severity of Parkinson's disease as assessed by Hoehn and Yahr stage[75] although a later study assessing serum β-phenylethylamine failed to replicate this correlation with disease severity although PD per se had a significantly lower serum level of this trace amine (48%).[76]

β-phenylethylamine is synthesized in and acts on the brain region which is known to dysfunction during Parkinson's disease, and accordingly concentrations of β-phenylethylamine in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid appear to be reduced during Parkinson's Disease

8Nutrient-Nutrient Interactions

8.1Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors

β-phenylethylamine (PEA) is metabolized by monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B), and inhibiting these enzymes in the presence of PEA has been noted to cause effects attributed to PEA that did not otherwise occur without inhibition of its metabolism.[77]

A condition known as 'cheese syndrome' or the 'cheese effect' is known to occur with high intake of cheese (conferring dietary tyramine) and chocolate (conferring dietary β-phenylethylamine) in persons who are using MAO inhibitors, where the combination results in a potentially dangerous increase in blood pressure.[78][79] It appears that selective inhibition of MAO-B is not a risk, but selective inhibition of MAO-A and mixed inhibition is.[78]

8.2Amphetamine

Mechanistically, β-phenylethylamine has been suggested to potentiate amphetamine-like actions in a manner not related to endogenous noradrenaline.[40]

As amphetamine is known to rapidly increase dopamine transporter trafficking to the cell surface[80][81] (although afterwards promoting receptor internalization[82][83]) and the effects of β-phenylethylamine on dopamine secretion depend on this transporter,[36] it is thought to be a possible level for interaction and may preclude long term synergism (as the increased DAT expression does not last after one hour[84][82]).

References

  1. ^ a b c d Irsfeld M, Spadafore M, Prüß BM. β-phenylethylamine, a small molecule with a large impact. Webmedcentral. (2013)
  2. ^ a b Premont RT1, Gainetdinov RR, Caron MG. Following the trace of elusive amines. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. (2001)
  3. ^ Güven KC1, Percot A, Sezik E. Alkaloids in marine algae. Mar Drugs. (2010)
  4. ^ a b c Kim B1, Byun BY, Mah JH. Biogenic amine formation and bacterial contribution in Natto products. Food Chem. (2012)
  5. ^ Figueiredo TC1, et al. Bioactive amines and internal quality of commercial eggs. Poult Sci. (2013)
  6. ^ Granvogl M1, Bugan S, Schieberle P. Formation of amines and aldehydes from parent amino acids during thermal processing of cocoa and model systems: new insights into pathways of the strecker reaction. J Agric Food Chem. (2006)
  7. ^ a b c d Janssen PA1, et al. Does phenylethylamine act as an endogenous amphetamine in some patients. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. (1999)
  8. ^ a b Flydal MI1, Martinez A. Phenylalanine hydroxylase: function, structure, and regulation. IUBMB Life. (2013)
  9. ^ a b Mitchell JJ1, Trakadis YJ, Scriver CR. Phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency. Genet Med. (2011)
  10. ^ a b c Paterson IA1, Juorio AV, Boulton AA. 2-Phenylethylamine: a modulator of catecholamine transmission in the mammalian central nervous system. J Neurochem. (1990)
  11. ^ Guldberg P1, Güttler F. Mutations in the phenylalanine hydroxylase gene: methods for their characterization. Acta Paediatr Suppl. (1994)
  12. ^ Eisensmith RC1, et al. Molecular basis of phenylketonuria and a correlation between genotype and phenotype in a heterogeneous southeastern US population. Pediatrics. (1996)
  13. ^ CAMP BJ, LYMAN CM. The isolation of N-methyl beta-phenylethylamine from Acacia berlandieri. J Am Pharm Assoc Am Pharm Assoc (Baltim). (1956)
  14. ^ Adams HR, Camp BJ. The isolation and identification of three alkaloids from Acacia Berlandieri. Toxicon. (1966)
  15. ^ a b c Shannon HE, Cone EJ, Yousefnejad D. Physiologic effects and plasma kinetics of beta-phenylethylamine and its N-methyl homolog in the dog. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. (1982)
  16. ^ Lindemann L1, et al. Trace amine-associated receptors form structurally and functionally distinct subfamilies of novel G protein-coupled receptors. Genomics. (2005)
  17. ^ Reese EA1, et al. Trace amine-associated receptor 1 displays species-dependent stereoselectivity for isomers of methamphetamine, amphetamine, and para-hydroxyamphetamine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. (2007)
  18. ^ a b c d Borowsky B1, et al. Trace amines: identification of a family of mammalian G protein-coupled receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. (2001)
  19. ^ Wainscott DB1, et al. Pharmacologic characterization of the cloned human trace amine-associated receptor1 (TAAR1) and evidence for species differences with the rat TAAR1. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. (2007)
  20. ^ a b c d Miller GM1, et al. Primate trace amine receptor 1 modulation by the dopamine transporter. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. (2005)
  21. ^ a b c Bunzow JR1, et al. Amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, lysergic acid diethylamide, and metabolites of the catecholamine neurotransmitters are agonists of a rat trace amine receptor. Mol Pharmacol. (2001)
  22. ^ Xie Z1, et al. Cloning, expression, and functional analysis of rhesus monkey trace amine-associated receptor 6: evidence for lack of monoaminergic association. J Neurosci Res. (2008)
  23. ^ Barak LS1, et al. Pharmacological characterization of membrane-expressed human trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) by a bioluminescence resonance energy transfer cAMP biosensor. Mol Pharmacol. (2008)
  24. ^ Miller GM. The emerging role of trace amine-associated receptor 1 in the functional regulation of monoamine transporters and dopaminergic activity. J Neurochem. (2011)
  25. ^ a b c d e f Babusyte A1, et al. Biogenic amines activate blood leukocytes via trace amine-associated receptors TAAR1 and TAAR2. J Leukoc Biol. (2013)
  26. ^ a b c Kleinau G1, et al. Differential modulation of Beta-adrenergic receptor signaling by trace amine-associated receptor 1 agonists. PLoS One. (2011)
  27. ^ Wallach JV. Endogenous hallucinogens as ligands of the trace amine receptors: a possible role in sensory perception. Med Hypotheses. (2009)
  28. ^ a b c Xie Z1, Miller GM. Beta-phenylethylamine alters monoamine transporter function via trace amine-associated receptor 1: implication for modulatory roles of trace amines in brain. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. (2008)
  29. ^ Hjorth S1, et al. Serotonin autoreceptor function and antidepressant drug action. J Psychopharmacol. (2000)
  30. ^ Garcia AS1, et al. Autoreceptor-mediated inhibition of norepinephrine release in rat medial prefrontal cortex is maintained after chronic desipramine treatment. J Neurochem. (2004)
  31. ^ Durden DA, Philips SR, Boulton AA. Identification and distribution of beta-phenylethylamine in the rat. Can J Biochem. (1973)
  32. ^ Isolation and characterization of phenylethylamine and phenylethanolamine from human brain.
  33. ^ a b Saavedra JM. Enzymatic isotopic assay for and presence of beta-phenylethylamine in brain. J Neurochem. (1974)
  34. ^ a b Mosnaim AD1, et al. Rat brain-uptake index for phenylethylamine and various monomethylated derivatives. Neurochem Res. (2013)
  35. ^ Oldendorf WH. Brain uptake of radiolabeled amino acids, amines, and hexoses after arterial injection. Am J Physiol. (1971)
  36. ^ a b c d Hossain M1, Wickramasekara RN, Carvelli L. β-Phenylethylamine requires the dopamine transporter to increase extracellular dopamine in Caenorhabditis elegans dopaminergic neurons. Neurochem Int. (2013)
  37. ^ Yang HY, Neff NH. Beta-phenylethylamine: a specific substrate for type B monoamine oxidase of brain. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. (1973)
  38. ^ Suzuki O, Katsumata Y, Oya M. Oxidation of beta-phenylethylamine by both types of monoamine oxidase: examination of enzymes in brain and liver mitochondria of eight species. J Neurochem. (1981)
  39. ^ Roth JA, Gillis CN. Deamination of beta-phenylethylamine by monoamine oxidase--inhibition by imipramine. Biochem Pharmacol. (1974)
  40. ^ a b Paterson IA. The potentiation of cortical neuron responses to noradrenaline by 2-phenylethylamine is independent of endogenous noradrenaline. Neurochem Res. (1993)
  41. ^ Suzuki O, Oya M, Katsumata Y. Characterization of N-methylphenylethylamine and N-methylphenylethanolamine as substrates for type A and type B monoamine oxidase. Biochem Pharmacol. (1980)
  42. ^ Saavedra JM, Axelrod J. Demonstration and distribution of phenylethanolamine in brain and other tissues. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. (1973)
  43. ^ Ziegler MG1, et al. Location, development, control, and function of extraadrenal phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase. Ann N Y Acad Sci. (2002)
  44. ^ Wu Q1, McLeish MJ. Kinetic and pH studies on human phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase. Arch Biochem Biophys. (2013)
  45. ^ Suzuki O, et al. Oxidation of phenylethanolamine and octopamine by type A and type B monoamine oxidase. Effect of substrate concentration. Biochem Pharmacol. (1979)
  46. ^ Edwards DJ. Phenylethanolamine is a specific substrate for type B monoamine oxidase. Life Sci. (1978)
  47. ^ a b c Levitt P, Pintar JE, Breakefield XO. Immunocytochemical demonstration of monoamine oxidase B in brain astrocytes and serotonergic neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. (1982)
  48. ^ Ma G1, et al. Effects of synephrine and beta-phenethylamine on human alpha-adrenoceptor subtypes. Planta Med. (2010)
  49. ^ a b Barroso N1, Rodriguez M. Action of beta-phenylethylamine and related amines on nigrostriatal dopamine neurotransmission. Eur J Pharmacol. (1996)
  50. ^ Sotnikova TD1, et al. Dopamine transporter-dependent and -independent actions of trace amine beta-phenylethylamine. J Neurochem. (2004)
  51. ^ Bailey BA, Philips SR, Boulton AA. In vivo release of endogenous dopamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine and some of their metabolites from rat caudate nucleus by phenylethylamine. Neurochem Res. (1987)
  52. ^ Ishida K1, et al. Effects of beta-phenylethylamine on dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area in the rat: a combined electrophysiological and microdialysis study. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. (2005)
  53. ^ Liang NY, Rutledge CO. Evidence for carrier-mediated efflux of dopamine from corpus striatum. Biochem Pharmacol. (1982)
  54. ^ Raiteri M, et al. Effects of phenethylamine derivatives on the release of biogenic amines from synaptosomes. Biochem Soc Trans. (1976)
  55. ^ Rodriguez M1, Barroso N. beta-Phenylethylamine regulation of dopaminergic nigrostriatal cell activity. Brain Res. (1995)
  56. ^ Mercuri NB1, et al. Loss of autoreceptor function in dopaminergic neurons from dopamine D2 receptor deficient mice. Neuroscience. (1997)
  57. ^ Nakamura M1, Ishii A, Nakahara D. Characterization of beta-phenylethylamine-induced monoamine release in rat nucleus accumbens: a microdialysis study. Eur J Pharmacol. (1998)
  58. ^ Negus SS1, Mello NK. Effects of chronic d-amphetamine treatment on cocaine- and food-maintained responding under a progressive-ratio schedule in rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl). (2003)
  59. ^ Grabowski J1, et al. Dextroamphetamine for cocaine-dependence treatment: a double-blind randomized clinical trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. (2001)
  60. ^ Daw ND1, Kakade S, Dayan P. Opponent interactions between serotonin and dopamine. Neural Netw. (2002)
  61. ^ Rothman RB1, Baumann MH. Balance between dopamine and serotonin release modulates behavioral effects of amphetamine-type drugs. Ann N Y Acad Sci. (2006)
  62. ^ Rothman RB1, Blough BE, Baumann MH. Dual dopamine/serotonin releasers as potential medications for stimulant and alcohol addictions. AAPS J. (2007)
  63. ^ Rothman RB1, Blough BE, Baumann MH. Dopamine/serotonin releasers as medications for stimulant addictions. Prog Brain Res. (2008)
  64. ^ Ekkekakis P1, Petruzzello SJ. Acute aerobic exercise and affect: current status, problems and prospects regarding dose-response. Sports Med. (1999)
  65. ^ Szabo A1, Billett E, Turner J. Phenylethylamine, a possible link to the antidepressant effects of exercise. Br J Sports Med. (2001)
  66. ^ Nelson DA1, et al. Expression of neuronal trace amine-associated receptor (Taar) mRNAs in leukocytes. J Neuroimmunol. (2007)
  67. ^ a b D'Andrea G1, et al. HPLC electrochemical detection of trace amines in human plasma and platelets and expression of mRNA transcripts of trace amine receptors in circulating leukocytes. Neurosci Lett. (2003)
  68. ^ Lynnes T1, Horne SM, Prüß BM. ß-Phenylethylamine as a novel nutrient treatment to reduce bacterial contamination due to Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef meat. Meat Sci. (2014)
  69. ^ a b c d e Becú-Villalobos D1, et al. Octopamine and phenylethylamine inhibit prolactin secretion both in vivo and in vitro. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. (1992)
  70. ^ a b c Becú-Villalobos D, Vacas MI, Libertun C. Prolactin inhibition by p-tyramine in the male rat: site of action. Endocrinology. (1987)
  71. ^ Ben-Jonathan N1, Hnasko R. Dopamine as a prolactin (PRL) inhibitor. Endocr Rev. (2001)
  72. ^ Sterling NW1, et al. Striatal shape in Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Aging. (2013)
  73. ^ Dyck LE, Yang CR, Boulton AA. The biosynthesis of p-tyramine, m-tyramine, and beta-phenylethylamine by rat striatal slices. J Neurosci Res. (1983)
  74. ^ Juorio AV1, et al. Electrical stimulation of the substantia nigra and changes of 2-phenylethylamine synthesis in the rat striatum. J Neurochem. (1991)
  75. ^ Zhou G1, et al. Decreased beta-phenylethylamine in CSF in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. (1997)
  76. ^ Miura Y. Plasma beta-phenylethylamine in Parkinson's disease. Kurume Med J. (2000)
  77. ^ Cashin CH. Effect of sympathomimetic drugs in eliciting hypertensive responses to reserpine in the rat, after pretreatment with monoamineoxidase inhibitors. Br J Pharmacol. (1972)
  78. ^ a b Finberg JP1, Gillman K. Selective inhibitors of monoamine oxidase type B and the "cheese effect". Int Rev Neurobiol. (2011)
  79. ^ Wimbiscus M1, Kostenko O, Malone D. MAO inhibitors: risks, benefits, and lore. Cleve Clin J Med. (2010)
  80. ^ Johnson LA1, et al. Rapid delivery of the dopamine transporter to the plasmalemmal membrane upon amphetamine stimulation. Neuropharmacology. (2005)
  81. ^ Furman CA1, et al. Dopamine and amphetamine rapidly increase dopamine transporter trafficking to the surface: live-cell imaging using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. J Neurosci. (2009)
  82. ^ a b Saunders C1, et al. Amphetamine-induced loss of human dopamine transporter activity: an internalization-dependent and cocaine-sensitive mechanism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. (2000)
  83. ^ Fleckenstein AE1, et al. Differential effects of psychostimulants and related agents on dopaminergic and serotonergic transporter function. Eur J Pharmacol. (1999)
  84. ^ Gulley JM1, Doolen S, Zahniser NR. Brief, repeated exposure to substrates down-regulates dopamine transporter function in Xenopus oocytes in vitro and rat dorsal striatum in vivo. J Neurochem. (2002)

This page is regularly updated, to include the most recently available clinical trial evidence.

Each member of our research team is required to have no conflicts of interest, including with supplement manufacturers, food companies, and industry funders. The team includes nutrition researchers, registered dietitians, physicians, and pharmacists. We have a strict editorial process.

This page features 84 references. All factual claims are followed by specifically-applicable references. Click here to see the full set of references for this page.

Examine.com is intended to be used for educational and information purposes only. Examine.com and its Editors do not advocate nutritional supplementation over proper medical advice or treatment and this sentiment will never be expressed through pages hosted under Examine.com. If using any pharmaceuticals or drugs given to you by a doctor or received with a prescription, you must consult with the doctor in question or an equally qualified Health Care Professional prior to using any nutritional supplementation. If undergoing medical therapies, then consult with your respective Therapist or Health Care Professional about possible interactions between your Treatment, any Pharmaceuticals or Drugs being given, and possible nutritional supplements or practices hosted on Examine.com.

Examine.com does not assume liability for any actions undertaken after visiting these pages, and does not assume liability if one misuses supplements. Examine.com and its Editors do not ensure that unforeseen side effects will not occur even at the proper dosages, and thereby does not assume liability for any side effects from supplements or practices hosted under the domain of Examine.com.

Popular Supplements

TOP NUTRITION ARTICLES

Never miss an update!

Your e-mail is safe with us. We don’t share personal data.
Tweet