Muscle Size & Strength

Last Updated: August 3, 2023

This page on muscle size and strength covers strategies to maximize muscle gain and strength gain. There is notable overlap in nutrition and supplementation strategies to facilitate these two goals, but there is some divergence in the best type of exercise. A larger muscle tends to be a stronger muscle.

Muscle Size & Strength falls under theMuscle Gain & Exercisecategory.

What are muscle size and strength?

“Muscle size” refers to the goal of muscle mass gain (or hypertrophy), which occurs primarily as a result of an increase in the size and/or number of myofibrils (i.e., bundles of protein filaments within muscle fibers that produce muscle contraction).[1] “Muscle strength” refers to the ability to produce force against an external resistance.[2]

How are muscle size and strength measured?

Muscle size is measured both at the whole-body and muscle-specific level. In the former, generally fat-free mass or lean mass is distinguished from fat mass and is commonly measured using either dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA-DXA|DXA) or bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). Other assessment methods include ultrasound, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging.[3]

Muscle strength is most commonly assessed using dynamic resistance exercise in the form of a 1-repetition maximum (1RM) test.[4][5] A higher-repetition maximum test (i.e., a 2–6 RM test) may also be used to assess strength and estimate 1RM. Another option is an isometric strength test, which involves producing a maximal force against an immovable resistance.[6] Unlike dynamic resistance exercise, the muscle length does not change during an isometric muscle action.

What type of exercise is best for promoting muscle size and strength?

Resistance exercise is the most effective means for increasing muscle size and strength. For muscle gain, a wide spectrum of loading ranges (approximately 40%–85% of 1-repetition maximum) are similarly effective,[7] whereas for strength, heavy loads (≥ 80% of 1-repetition maximum) are superior to lighter loads.[8][9]

About 10–20 sets should be performed per week for muscle gain,[10] whereas muscle strength is effectively built with lower training volumes of about 5–9 sets per week.[11][12]

For both muscle size and strength, a rest interval of at least 3 minutes between sets is best for most exercises.[13] A shorter rest interval of about 60–90 seconds may be employed for single-joint and certain machine-based exercises during muscle gain-oriented workouts.[14]

Have any supplements been studied for muscle size and strength?

Supplements marketed to improve muscle size and strength are purported to do so through by enhancing resistance exercise performance (i.e., by enhancing force production or muscular endurance), by stimulating muscle protein synthesis, by increasing the availability of fuel sources (e.g., carbohydrate), and/or by supporting recovery.[15]

Some of the most effective options are creatine,[16] caffeine,[17] and protein.[18] Other popular options include citrulline, nitrate, beta-alanine, ashwagandha, betaine, alpha-GPC, and taurine.

How can diet affect muscle size and strength?

Nutrition plays an important role in increasing muscle size and strength by fueling exercise, promoting recovery, and providing the materials to build up muscle. These processes are mainly influenced by protein and carbohydrate intake. Evidence suggests that a total daily protein intake of 1.6–2.2 grams per kilogram of body weight is ideal for supporting increases in muscle size and strength.[18][18]

Muscle glycogen is the primary fuel source during resistance exercise,[19] and glycogen depletion is associated with muscular fatigue and impaired muscle contraction efficiency,[20] so consuming at least 3–5 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight per day is recommended to maximize increases in muscle size and strength.[21][22]

Nonetheless, many studies have not found differences in strength gains between higher- and lower-carbohydrate diets.[23] This is likely due to the fact that compared to muscle-gain-oriented workouts, those focused on strength adaptations tend to feature lower volumes and longer rest periods, relying less on carbohydrates for energy.

Which other factors affect muscle size and strength?

How much muscle and strength an individual gains in response to a resistance exercise program is influenced by a myriad of factors, including their age, genetics,[24][25][26] lifestyle (i.e., sleep, nutrition, and stress management), and training history. For instance, the magnitude of muscle gain tends to decrease with age[27][28][29] and training experience.[22][9]

Generally speaking, the majority of a person’s strength can be attributed to their muscle mass, [30][31][32][33][34] which is supported by the mechanistic rationale that a larger muscle has greater force-generating capacity.[35] Put simply, in most cases, the best way to improve one’s strength is to increase one’s muscle mass. Neural factors (e.g., the threshold at which motor units are recruited and the motor unit discharge rate[2]) also contribute to muscle strength, and the muscle strength one can deploy in a given exercise can be increased simply by practicing that exercise.[36][37]

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Update History
2023-08-03 16:56:14

Page completely restructured

major

This was previously the "Muscle Gain" page, but it was restructured to act as a general page for increases in muscle size and strength that don't directly pertain to athletic/performance goals.

References
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  36. Power Output - Volek JS, Ratamess NA, Rubin MR, Gómez AL, French DN, McGuigan MM, Scheett TP, Sharman MJ, Häkkinen K, Kraemer WJThe effects of creatine supplementation on muscular performance and body composition responses to short-term resistance training overreachingEur J Appl Physiol.(2004 May)
  37. Power Output - Spillane M, Schoch R, Cooke M, Harvey T, Greenwood M, Kreider R, Willoughby DSThe effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation combined with heavy resistance training on body composition, muscle performance, and serum and muscle creatine levelsJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2009 Feb 19)
  38. Power Output - Trent J Herda, Travis W Beck, Eric D Ryan, Abbie E Smith, Ashley A Walter, Michael J Hartman, Jeffrey R Stout, Joel T CramerEffects of creatine monohydrate and polyethylene glycosylated creatine supplementation on muscular strength, endurance, and power outputJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 May)
  39. Power Output - Kerksick CM, Wilborn CD, Campbell WI, Harvey TM, Marcello BM, Roberts MD, Parker AG, Byars AG, Greenwood LD, Almada AL, Kreider RB, Greenwood MThe effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation with and without D-pinitol on resistance training adaptationsJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 Dec)
  40. Power Output - Jonathan P Little, Scott C Forbes, Darren G Candow, Stephen M Cornish, Philip D ChilibeckCreatine, arginine alpha-ketoglutarate, amino acids, and medium-chain triglycerides and endurance and performanceInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2008 Oct)
  41. Power Output - Rawson ES, Volek JSEffects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength and weightlifting performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2003 Nov)
  42. Power Output - Ferguson TB, Syrotuik DGEffects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on body composition and strength indices in experienced resistance trained womenJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 Nov)
  43. Power Output - Selsby JT, DiSilvestro RA, Devor STMg2+-creatine chelate and a low-dose creatine supplementation regimen improve exercise performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2004 May)
  44. Power Output - Bemben MG, Witten MS, Carter JM, Eliot KA, Knehans AW, Bemben DAThe effects of supplementation with creatine and protein on muscle strength following a traditional resistance training program in middle-aged and older menJ Nutr Health Aging.(2010 Feb)
  45. Power Output - Bazzucchi I, Felici F, Sacchetti MEffect of short-term creatine supplementation on neuromuscular functionMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2009 Oct)
  46. Power Output - Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Parise G, Candow DG, Mahoney D, Tarnopolsky MEffect of creatine and weight training on muscle creatine and performance in vegetariansMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2003 Nov)
  47. Power Output - Kendall KL, Smith AE, Graef JL, Fukuda DH, Moon JR, Beck TW, Cramer JT, Stout JREffects of four weeks of high-intensity interval training and creatine supplementation on critical power and anaerobic working capacity in college-aged menJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 Sep)
  48. Power Output - Cramer JT, Stout JR, Culbertson JY, Egan ADEffects of creatine supplementation and three days of resistance training on muscle strength, power output, and neuromuscular functionJ Strength Cond Res.(2007 Aug)
  49. Power Output - Carter JM, Bemben DA, Knehans AW, Bemben MG, Witten MSDoes nutritional supplementation influence adaptability of muscle to resistance training in men aged 48 to 72 yearsJ Geriatr Phys Ther.(2005)
  50. Power Output - Camic CL, Hendrix CR, Housh TJ, Zuniga JM, Mielke M, Johnson GO, Schmidt RJ, Housh DJThe effects of polyethylene glycosylated creatine supplementation on muscular strength and powerJ Strength Cond Res.(2010 Dec)
  51. Power Output - Dos Santos EEP, de Araújo RC, Candow DG, Forbes SC, Guijo JA, de Almeida Santana CC, Prado WLD, Botero JPEfficacy of Creatine Supplementation Combined with Resistance Training on Muscle Strength and Muscle Mass in Older Females: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Nutrients.(2021-Oct-24)
  52. Muscle Damage - Cooke MB, Rybalka E, Williams AD, Cribb PJ, Hayes ACreatine supplementation enhances muscle force recovery after eccentrically-induced muscle damage in healthy individualsJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2009 Jun 2)
  53. Muscular Endurance - Armentano MJ, Brenner AK, Hedman TL, Solomon ZT, Chavez J, Kemper GB, Salzberg D, Battafarano DF, Christie DSThe effect and safety of short-term creatine supplementation on performance of push-upsMil Med.(2007 Mar)
  54. Muscular Endurance - McConell GK, Shinewell J, Stephens TJ, Stathis CG, Canny BJ, Snow RJCreatine supplementation reduces muscle inosine monophosphate during endurance exercise in humansMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2005 Dec)
  55. Growth Hormone - Schedel JM, Tanaka H, Kiyonaga A, Shindo M, Schutz YAcute creatine loading enhances human growth hormone secretionJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2000 Dec)
  56. Anaerobic Capacity - Kinugasa R, Akima H, Ota A, Ohta A, Sugiura K, Kuno SYShort-term creatine supplementation does not improve muscle activation or sprint performance in humansEur J Appl Physiol.(2004 Mar)
  57. IGF-1 - Louise Deldicque, Magali Louis, Daniel Theisen, Henri Nielens, Mischaël Dehoux, Jean-Paul Thissen, Michael J Rennie, Marc FrancauxIncreased IGF mRNA in human skeletal muscle after creatine supplementationMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2005 May)
  58. IGF-1 - Burke DG, Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, MacNeil LG, Roy BD, Tarnopolsky MA, Ziegenfuss TEffect of creatine supplementation and resistance-exercise training on muscle insulin-like growth factor in young adultsInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2008 Aug)
  59. Muscle Creatine Content - Nelson AG, Arnall DA, Kokkonen J, Day R, Evans JMuscle glycogen supercompensation is enhanced by prior creatine supplementationMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2001 Jul)
  60. Muscle Creatine Content - Jeffrey J Brault, Theodore F Towse, Jill M Slade, Ronald A MeyerParallel increases in phosphocreatine and total creatine in human vastus lateralis muscle during creatine supplementationInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2007 Dec)
  61. Muscle Creatine Content - Watt KK, Garnham AP, Snow RJSkeletal muscle total creatine content and creatine transporter gene expression in vegetarians prior to and following creatine supplementationInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2004 Oct)
  62. Skeletal Muscle Atrophy - Johnston AP, Burke DG, MacNeil LG, Candow DGEffect of creatine supplementation during cast-induced immobilization on the preservation of muscle mass, strength, and enduranceJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 Jan)
  63. Hydration (Total Body Water) - Nicholas Sculthorpe, Fergal Grace, Peter Jones, Iain FletcherThe effect of short-term creatine loading on active range of movementAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2010 Aug)
  64. Fatigue Resistance - Stout JR, Cramer JT, Mielke M, O'Kroy J, Torok DJ, Zoeller RFEffects of twenty-eight days of beta-alanine and creatine monohydrate supplementation on the physical working capacity at neuromuscular fatigue thresholdJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 Nov)
  65. Fatigue Resistance - Eric S Rawson, Michael J Stec, Sara J Frederickson, Mary P MilesLow-dose creatine supplementation enhances fatigue resistance in the absence of weight gainNutrition.(2011 Apr)
  66. Fatigue Resistance - Stout JR, Sue Graves B, Cramer JT, Goldstein ER, Costa PB, Smith AE, Walter AAEffects of creatine supplementation on the onset of neuromuscular fatigue threshold and muscle strength in elderly men and women (64 - 86 years)J Nutr Health Aging.(2007 Nov-Dec)
  67. Satellite Cell Recruitment - Olsen S, Aagaard P, Kadi F, Tufekovic G, Verney J, Olesen JL, Suetta C, Kjaer MCreatine supplementation augments the increase in satellite cell and myonuclei number in human skeletal muscle induced by strength trainingJ Physiol.(2006 Jun 1)
  68. Muscle Soreness - Ho JY, Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, Fragala MS, Thomas GA, Dunn-Lewis C, Coday M, Häkkinen K, Maresh CMl-Carnitine l-tartrate supplementation favorably affects biochemical markers of recovery from physical exertion in middle-aged men and womenMetabolism.(2010 Aug)
  69. Muscle Soreness - M A Giamberardino, L Dragani, R Valente, F Di Lisa, R Saggini, L VecchietEffects of prolonged L-carnitine administration on delayed muscle pain and CK release after eccentric effortInt J Sports Med.(1996 Jul)
  70. Lean Mass - Majid S Koozehchian, Amin Daneshfar, Ebrahim Fallah, Hamid Agha-Alinejad, Mohammad Samadi, Mojtaba Kaviani, Maryam Kaveh B, Y Peter Jung, Mozhgan Hassanzadeh Sablouei, Najmeh Moradi, Conrad P Earnest, T Jeff Chandler, Richard B KreiderEffects of nine weeks L-Carnitine supplementation on exercise performance, anaerobic power, and exercise-induced oxidative stress in resistance-trained malesJ Exerc Nutrition Biochem.(2018 Dec 31)
  71. Lean Mass - Pistone G, Marino A, Leotta C, Dell'Arte S, Finocchiaro G, Malaguarnera MLevocarnitine administration in elderly subjects with rapid muscle fatigue: effect on body composition, lipid profile and fatigueDrugs Aging.(2003)
  72. Lean Mass - Angelika K Sawicka, Dace Hartmane, Patrycja Lipinska, Ewa Wojtowicz, Wieslawa Lysiak-Szydlowska, Robert A Olekl-Carnitine Supplementation in Older Women. A Pilot Study on Aging Skeletal Muscle Mass and FunctionNutrients.(2018 Feb 23)
  73. Power Output - Jacobs PL, Goldstein ER, Blackburn W, Orem I, Hughes JJGlycine propionyl-L-carnitine produces enhanced anaerobic work capacity with reduced lactate accumulation in resistance trained malesJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2009 Apr 2)
  74. Exercise-Induced Oxidation - Bloomer RJ, Smith WAOxidative stress in response to aerobic and anaerobic power testing: influence of exercise training and carnitine supplementationRes Sports Med.(2009 Jan-Mar)
  75. Exercise-Induced Oxidation - Spiering BA, Kraemer WJ, Hatfield DL, Vingren JL, Fragala MS, Ho JY, Thomas GA, Häkkinen K, Volek JSEffects of L-carnitine L-tartrate supplementation on muscle oxygenation responses to resistance exerciseJ Strength Cond Res.(2008 Jul)
  76. Muscle Damage - Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, French DN, Rubin MR, Sharman MJ, Gómez AL, Ratamess NA, Newton RU, Jemiolo B, Craig BW, Häkkinen KThe effects of L-carnitine L-tartrate supplementation on hormonal responses to resistance exercise and recoveryJ Strength Cond Res.(2003 Aug)
  77. Androgen Receptor Density - Kraemer WJ, Spiering BA, Volek JS, Ratamess NA, Sharman MJ, Rubin MR, French DN, Silvestre R, Hatfield DL, Van Heest JL, Vingren JL, Judelson DA, Deschenes MR, Maresh CMAndrogenic responses to resistance exercise: effects of feeding and L-carnitineMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2006 Jul)
  78. Anaerobic Capacity - Wall BT, Stephens FB, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Marimuthu K, Macdonald IA, Greenhaff PLChronic oral ingestion of L-carnitine and carbohydrate increases muscle carnitine content and alters muscle fuel metabolism during exercise in humansJ Physiol.(2011 Feb 15)
  79. Blood Lactate (Exercise) - E P Brass, C L Hoppel, W R HiattEffect of intravenous L-carnitine on carnitine homeostasis and fuel metabolism during exercise in humansClin Pharmacol Ther.(1994 Jun)
  80. Heart Rate - Decombaz J, Deriaz O, Acheson K, Gmuender B, Jequier EEffect of L-carnitine on submaximal exercise metabolism after depletion of muscle glycogenMed Sci Sports Exerc.(1993 Jun)
  81. Muscle Soreness - Hoffman JR, Cooper J, Wendell M, Im J, Kang JEffects of beta-hydroxy beta-methylbutyrate on power performance and indices of muscle damage and stress during high-intensity trainingJ Strength Cond Res.(2004 Nov)
  82. Lean Mass - Thomson JS, Watson PE, Rowlands DSEffects of nine weeks of beta-hydroxy-beta- methylbutyrate supplementation on strength and body composition in resistance trained menJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 May)
  83. Lean Mass - Slater G, Jenkins D, Logan P, Lee H, Vukovich M, Rathmacher JA, Hahn AGBeta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) supplementation does not affect changes in strength or body composition during resistance training in trained menInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2001 Sep)
  84. Lean Mass - Gallagher PM, Carrithers JA, Godard MP, Schulze KE, Trappe SWBeta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate ingestion, Part I: effects on strength and fat free massMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2000 Dec)
  85. Lean Mass - Kreider RB, Ferreira M, Wilson M, Almada ALEffects of calcium beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) supplementation during resistance-training on markers of catabolism, body composition and strengthInt J Sports Med.(1999 Nov)
  86. Lean Mass - Richard B. Kreider, Maria Pontes Ferreira, Michael Greenwood, M. Wilson, Pamela Grindstaff, Steven Plisk, Jeff Reinardy, Edward Cantler, and Anthony L. AmaldaEffects of Calcium β-HMB Supplementation During Training on Markers of Catabolism, Body Composition, Strength and Sprint PerformanceJournal of Exercise Physiology.()
  87. Body Fat - Holland BM, Roberts BM, Krieger JW, Schoenfeld BJDoes HMB Enhance Body Composition in Athletes? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.J Strength Cond Res.(2022-Feb-01)
  88. Muscle Damage - Rahimi MH, Mohammadi H, Eshaghi H, Askari G, Miraghajani MThe Effects of Beta-Hydroxy-Beta-Methylbutyrate Supplementation on Recovery Following Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.J Am Coll Nutr.(2018)
  89. Muscle Soreness - Aggelos Pappas, Athanasios Tsiokanos, Ioannis G Fatouros, Athanasios Poulios, Dimitris Kouretas, Nikos Goutzourelas, Giannis Giakas, Athanasios Z JamurtasThe Effects of Spirulina Supplementation on Redox Status and Performance Following a Muscle Damaging ProtocolInt J Mol Sci.(2021 Mar 30)
  90. Muscle Soreness - Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Kang J, Rashti SL, Faigenbaum ADEffect of betaine supplementation on power performance and fatigueJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2009 Feb 27)
  91. Power Output - Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Kang J, Gonzalez AM, Beller NA, Craig SAEffect of 15 days of betaine ingestion on concentric and eccentric force outputs during isokinetic exerciseJ Strength Cond Res.(2011 Aug)
  92. Power Output - Trepanowski JF, Farney TM, McCarthy CG, Schilling BK, Craig SA, Bloomer RJThe effects of chronic betaine supplementation on exercise performance, skeletal muscle oxygen saturation and associated biochemical parameters in resistance trained menJ Strength Cond Res.(2011 Dec)
  93. Growth Hormone - Apicella JM, Lee EC, Bailey BL, Saenz C, Anderson JM, Craig SA, Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, Maresh CMBetaine supplementation enhances anabolic endocrine and Akt signaling in response to acute bouts of exerciseEur J Appl Physiol.(2013 Mar)
  94. Muscle Soreness - McLeay Y, Barnes MJ, Mundel T, Hurst SM, Hurst RD, Stannard SREffect of New Zealand blueberry consumption on recovery from eccentric exercise-induced muscle damageJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2012 Jul 11)
  95. Muscle Soreness - Jenkins ND, Housh TJ, Johnson GO, Traylor DA, Bergstrom HC, Cochrane KC, Lewis RW Jr, Schmidt RJ, Cramer JTThe effects of anatabine on non-invasive indicators of muscle damage: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover studyJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2013 Jul 22)
  96. Muscle Soreness - Gislaine Cristina-Souza, Ana C Santos-Mariano, Adriano E Lima-Silva, Poliana L Costa, Pablo R Domingos, Sandro F Silva, Wilson C Abreu, Fernando R De-Oliveira, Raul OsieckiPanax ginseng Supplementation Increases Muscle Recruitment, Attenuates Perceived Effort, and Accelerates Muscle Force Recovery After an Eccentric-Based Exercise in AthletesJ Strength Cond Res.(2020 Apr 29)
  97. Body Fat - Pipat, Cherdungsi., Kanyarat, RungroengEffects of Standardized Ginseng Extract and Exercise Training on Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise Capacities in HumansJournal of Ginseng Research.()
  98. Body Fat - Angelheart J.M. RattuThe effect of ginseng supplementation on strength development in response to resistance exercise trainingMedical Journal of Indonesia.()
  99. Testosterone - E. Azizi, F. MoradiThe effect of ginseng supplementation on anabolic index, muscle strength, body composition, and testosterone and cortisol response to acute resistance exercise in male bodybuildersDepartment of Physical Education and Sport Sciences.()
  100. Muscle Soreness - Antti A Mero, Tuomo Ojala, Juha J Hulmi, Risto Puurtinen, Tuomo AM Karila, and Timo SeppäläEffects of alfa-hydroxy-isocaproic acid on body composition, DOMS and performance in athletesJISSN.()
  101. Lean Mass - Campbell WW, Joseph LJ, Anderson RA, Davey SL, Hinton J, Evans WJEffects of resistive training and chromium picolinate on body composition and skeletal muscle size in older womenInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2002 Jun)
  102. Lean Mass - Livolsi JM, Adams GM, Laguna PLThe effect of chromium picolinate on muscular strength and body composition in women athletesJ Strength Cond Res.(2001 May)
  103. Lean Mass - Walker LS, Bemben MG, Bemben DA, Knehans AWChromium picolinate effects on body composition and muscular performance in wrestlersMed Sci Sports Exerc.(1998 Dec)
  104. Lean Mass - Hallmark MA, Reynolds TH, DeSouza CA, Dotson CO, Anderson RA, Rogers MAEffects of chromium and resistive training on muscle strength and body compositionMed Sci Sports Exerc.(1996 Jan)
  105. Lean Mass - Joseph LJ, Farrell PA, Davey SL, Evans WJ, Campbell WWEffect of resistance training with or without chromium picolinate supplementation on glucose metabolism in older men and womenMetabolism.(1999 May)
  106. Lean Mass - Green NR, Ferrando AAPlasma boron and the effects of boron supplementation in malesEnviron Health Perspect.(1994 Nov)
  107. Lean Mass - Ispoglou T, King RF, Polman RC, Zanker CDaily L-leucine supplementation in novice trainees during a 12-week weight training programInt J Sports Physiol Perform.(2011 Mar)
  108. Lean Mass - Ostojic SM, Calleja J, Jourkesh MEffects of short-term dehydroepiandrosterone supplementation on body composition in young athletesChin J Physiol.(2010 Feb 28)
  109. Lean Mass - Wallace MB, Lim J, Cutler A, Bucci LEffects of dehydroepiandrosterone vs androstenedione supplementation in menMed Sci Sports Exerc.(1999 Dec)
  110. Lean Mass - Dayal M, Sammel MD, Zhao J, Hummel AC, Vandenbourne K, Barnhart KTSupplementation with DHEA: effect on muscle size, strength, quality of life, and lipidsJ Womens Health (Larchmt).(2005 Jun)
  111. Lean Mass - Brown GA, Vukovich MD, Sharp RL, Reifenrath TA, Parsons KA, King DSEffect of oral DHEA on serum testosterone and adaptations to resistance training in young menJ Appl Physiol.(1999 Dec)
  112. Lean Mass - Grant M Tinsley, M Lane Moore, Austin J Graybeal, Antonio Paoli, Youngdeok Kim, Joaquin U Gonzales, John R Harry, Trisha A VanDusseldorp, Devin N Kennedy, Megan R CruzTime-restricted feeding plus resistance training in active females: a randomized trialAm J Clin Nutr.(2019 Sep 1)
  113. Lean Mass - Tatiana Moro, Grant Tinsley, Antonino Bianco, Giuseppe Marcolin, Quirico Francesco Pacelli, Giuseppe Battaglia, Antonio Palma, Paulo Gentil, Marco Neri, Antonio PaoliEffects of eight weeks of time-restricted feeding (16/8) on basal metabolism, maximal strength, body composition, inflammation, and cardiovascular risk factors in resistance-trained malesJ Transl Med.(2016 Oct 13)
  114. Lean Mass - Matthew T Stratton, Grant M Tinsley, Michaela G Alesi, Garrett M Hester, Alex A Olmos, Paul R Serafini, Andrew S Modjeski, Gerald T Mangine, Kelsey King, Shelby N Savage, Austin T Webb, Trisha A VanDusseldorpFour Weeks of Time-Restricted Feeding Combined with Resistance Training Does Not Differentially Influence Measures of Body Composition, Muscle Performance, Resting Energy Expenditure, and Blood BiomarkersNutrients.(2020 Apr 17)
  115. Lean Mass - Rogerson S, Riches CJ, Jennings C, Weatherby RP, Meir RA, Marshall-Gradisnik SMThe effect of five weeks of Tribulus terrestris supplementation on muscle strength and body composition during preseason training in elite rugby league playersJ Strength Cond Res.(2007 May)
  116. Lean Mass - Antonio J, Uelmen J, Rodriguez R, Earnest CThe effects of Tribulus terrestris on body composition and exercise performance in resistance-trained malesInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2000 Jun)
  117. Lean Mass - Wilborn CD, Taylor LW, Campbell BI, Kerksick C, Rasmussen CJ, Greenwood M, Kreider RBEffects of methoxyisoflavone, ecdysterone, and sulfo-polysaccharide supplementation on training adaptations in resistance-trained malesJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2006 Dec 13)
  118. Lean Mass - Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, Burke DG, Davison KS, Smith-Palmer TEffect of glutamine supplementation combined with resistance training in young adultsEur J Appl Physiol.(2001 Dec)
  119. Lean Mass - Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Tranchina CP, Rashti SL, Kang J, Faigenbaum ADEffect of protein-supplement timing on strength, power, and body-composition changes in resistance-trained menInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2009 Apr)
  120. Lean Mass - Weisgarber KD, Candow DG, Vogt E SMWhey Protein Before and During Resistance Exercise Has No Effect on Muscle Mass and Strength in Untrained Young AdultsInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2012 Jul 4)
  121. Lean Mass - Andersen LL, Tufekovic G, Zebis MK, Crameri RM, Verlaan G, Kjaer M, Suetta C, Magnusson P, Aagaard PThe effect of resistance training combined with timed ingestion of protein on muscle fiber size and muscle strengthMetabolism.(2005 Feb)
  122. Lean Mass - Kerksick CM, Rasmussen CJ, Lancaster SL, Magu B, Smith P, Melton C, Greenwood M, Almada AL, Earnest CP, Kreider RBThe effects of protein and amino acid supplementation on performance and training adaptations during ten weeks of resistance trainingJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 Aug)
  123. Weight - Vatani DS, Golzar FAChanges in antioxidant status and cardiovascular risk factors of overweight young men after six weeks supplementation of whey protein isolate and resistance trainingAppetite.(2012 Aug 10)
  124. IGF-1 - Reitelseder S, Agergaard J, Doessing S, Helmark IC, Lund P, Kristensen NB, Frystyk J, Flyvbjerg A, Schjerling P, van Hall G, Kjaer M, Holm LWhey and casein labeled with L-1-13Cleucine and muscle protein synthesis: effect of resistance exercise and protein ingestionAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab.(2011 Jan)
  125. Muscle protein synthesis (MPS) - Tipton KD, Elliott TA, Cree MG, Wolf SE, Sanford AP, Wolfe RRIngestion of casein and whey proteins result in muscle anabolism after resistance exerciseMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2004 Dec)
  126. Lean Mass - Grant M Tinsley, Jeffrey S Forsse, Natalie K Butler, Antonio Paoli, Annie A Bane, Paul M La Bounty, Grant B Morgan, Peter W GrandjeanTime-restricted feeding in young men performing resistance training: A randomized controlled trialEur J Sport Sci.(2017 Mar)
  127. Lean Mass - Sleivert G, Burke V, Palmer C, Walmsley A, Gerrard D, Haines S, Littlejohn RThe effects of deer antler velvet extract or powder supplementation on aerobic power, erythropoiesis, and muscular strength and endurance characteristicsInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2003 Sep)
  128. Lean Mass - Bang HS, Seo DY, Chung YM, Oh KM, Park JJ, Arturo F, Jeong SH, Kim N, Han JUrsolic Acid-induced elevation of serum irisin augments muscle strength during resistance training in menKorean J Physiol Pharmacol.(2014 Oct)
  129. Lean Mass - Mark Messina, Heidi Lynch, Jared M Dickinson, Katharine E ReedNo Difference Between the Effects of Supplementing With Soy Protein Versus Animal Protein on Gains in Muscle Mass and Strength in Response to Resistance ExerciseInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2018 Nov 1)
  130. Lean Mass - Wilborn C, Taylor L, Poole C, Foster C, Willoughby D, Kreider REffects of a purported aromatase and 5α-reductase inhibitor on hormone profiles in college-age menInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2010 Dec)
  131. Lean Mass - Pinkoski C, Chilibeck PD, Candow DG, Esliger D, Ewaschuk JB, Facci M, Farthing JP, Zello GAThe effects of conjugated linoleic acid supplementation during resistance trainingMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2006 Feb)
  132. Lean Mass - Roberts MD, Iosia M, Kerksick CM, Taylor LW, Campbell B, Wilborn CD, Harvey T, Cooke M, Rasmussen C, Greenwood M, Wilson R, Jitomir J, Willoughby D, Kreider RBEffects of arachidonic acid supplementation on training adaptations in resistance-trained malesJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2007 Nov 28)
  133. Lean Mass - Darryn S. Willoughby, Brian Leutholtzd-Aspartic acid supplementation combined with 28 days of heavy resistance training has no effect on body composition, muscle strength, and serum hormones associated with the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis in resistance-trained menNutrition Research.()
  134. Urea - Chen CK, Mohamad WM, Ooi FK, Ismail SB, Abdullah MR, George ASupplementation of Eurycoma longifolia Jack Extract for 6 Weeks Does Not Affect Urinary Testosterone: Epitestosterone Ratio, Liver and Renal Functions in Male Recreational Athletes.Int J Prev Med.(2014-Jun)
  135. Power Output - Chen CK, Ooi FK, Abu Kasim NA, Asari MAEffects of Jack Supplementation Combined with Resistance Training on Isokinetic Muscular Strength and Power, Anaerobic Power, and Urinary Testosterone: Epitestosterone Ratio in Young Males.Int J Prev Med.(2019)
  136. Triglycerides - Fry AC, Bonner E, Lewis DL, Johnson RL, Stone MH, Kraemer WJThe effects of gamma-oryzanol supplementation during resistance exercise trainingInt J Sport Nutr.(1997 Dec)
  137. Subjective Well-Being - Duncan MJ, Oxford SWThe effect of caffeine ingestion on mood state and bench press performance to failureJ Strength Cond Res.(2011 Jan)
  138. Power Output - Beaven CM, Hopkins WG, Hansen KT, Wood MR, Cronin JB, Lowe TEDose effect of caffeine on testosterone and cortisol responses to resistance exerciseInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2008 Apr)
  139. Power Output - Todd A Astorino, Michael N Terzi, Daniel W Roberson, Timothy R BurnettEffect of two doses of caffeine on muscular function during isokinetic exerciseMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2010 Dec)
  140. Power Output - Mora-Rodríguez R, Pallarés JG, López-Samanes A, Ortega JF, Fernández-Elías VECaffeine ingestion reverses the circadian rhythm effects on neuromuscular performance in highly resistance-trained menPLoS One.(2012)
  141. Power Output - Cook C, Beaven CM, Kilduff LP, Drawer SAcute caffeine ingestion increases voluntarily chosen resistance training load following limited sleepInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2012 Feb 15)
  142. Power Output - Del Coso J, Salinero JJ, Gonzalez-Millan C, Abian-Vicen J, Perez-Gonzalez BDose response effects of a caffeine-containing energy drink on muscle performance: a repeated measures designJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2012 May 8)
  143. Subjective Well-Being - Williams AD, Cribb PJ, Cooke MB, Hayes AThe effect of ephedra and caffeine on maximal strength and power in resistance-trained athletesJ Strength Cond Res.(2008 Mar)
  144. Subjective Well-Being - Erin E Sutton, M Regina Coill, Patricia A DeusterIngestion of tyrosine: effects on endurance, muscle strength, and anaerobic performanceInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2005 Apr)
  145. Aerobic Exercise Metrics - R D Steadward, M SinghThe effects of smoking marihuana on physical performanceMed Sci Sports.(Winter 1975)
  146. Power Output - Hoffman J, Ratamess NA, Ross R, Kang J, Magrelli J, Neese K, Faigenbaum AD, Wise JABeta-alanine and the hormonal response to exerciseInt J Sports Med.(2008 Dec)
  147. Power Output - Hobson RM, Saunders B, Ball G, Harris RC, Sale CEffects of β-alanine supplementation on exercise performance: a meta-analysisAmino Acids.(2012 Jul)
  148. Power Output - Webster MJ, Webster MN, Crawford RE, Gladden LBEffect of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on exhaustive resistance exercise performanceMed Sci Sports Exerc.(1993 Aug)
  149. Anaerobic Capacity - L Mc Naughton, D ThompsonAcute versus chronic sodium bicarbonate ingestion and anaerobic work and power outputJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2001 Dec)
  150. Blood Lactate (Exercise) - Portington KJ, Pascoe DD, Webster MJ, Anderson LH, Rutland RR, Gladden LBEffect of induced alkalosis on exhaustive leg press performanceMed Sci Sports Exerc.(1998 Apr)
  151. Power Output - Wax B, Kavazis AN, Webb HE, Brown SPAcute L-arginine alpha ketoglutarate supplementation fails to improve muscular performance in resistance trained and untrained menJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2012 Apr 17)
  152. Blood Pressure - Fahs CA, Heffernan KS, Fernhall BHemodynamic and vascular response to resistance exercise with L-arginineMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2009 Apr)
  153. Power Output - Owens DJ, Sharples AP, Polydorou I, Alwan N, Donovan T, Tang J, Fraser WD, Cooper RG, Morton JP, Stewart C, Close GLA systems-based investigation into vitamin D and skeletal muscle repair, regeneration, and hypertrophyAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab.(2015 Dec 15)
  154. Interleukin 5 - Barker T, Martins TB, Hill HR, Kjeldsberg CR, Henriksen VT, Dixon BM, Schneider ED, Dern A, Weaver LKDifferent doses of supplemental vitamin D maintain interleukin-5 without altering skeletal muscle strength: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in vitamin D sufficient adultsNutr Metab (Lond).(2012 Mar 9)
  155. Power Output - Fulford J, Winyard PG, Vanhatalo A, Bailey SJ, Blackwell JR, Jones AMInfluence of dietary nitrate supplementation on human skeletal muscle metabolism and force production during maximum voluntary contractionsPflugers Arch.(2013 Jan 26)
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