Choline is a molecule mostly used for either its cognitive boosting properties (turning into acetylcholine, the learning neurotransmitter) or as a liver health agent, able to reduce fatty liver buildup. Found in high amounts in eggs, the yolks in particular
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When a high dose is taken acutely, choline can make its way to the brain and acutely increase focus, muscle contraction potency, and potentially memory formation (all dependent on external stimuli like exercise or study).
When taken in lower doses throughout the day, more of the choline is devoted to methyl donation, which can be seen as metabolic maintenance. By having an abundance of choline (or any methyl donor such as TMG or methionine) in your body, you can keep reactions that require a methyl donation functioning at optimal capacity.
Possibly through a combination of both of the above mechanisms, choline supplementation seems to alleviate the neurological decline associated with aging.
Choline supplementation can also reduce levels of homocysteine, a prominent risk factor for heart disease.
Choline has been linked to increased endurance performance.
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Trimethylethanolamine, Choline Bitartrate
Despite not having direct stimulatory actions, many people report more alertness and faster reflexes with choline supplementation.
If any Cholinergic is taken in too high of a dose acutely, headaches will ensue.
Given the very high toxicity level for choline and the headaches associated with a high intake (which is still many magnitudes below toxicity), it is highly improbable that one will experience toxicity symptoms with choline supplementation.
Examine.com Medical DisclaimerDoses for choline vary significantly.
Typically a dose of 250mg to 500mg is used for general health purposes once daily.
For mechanisms through acetylcholine, the choline should be pulsed in high doses acutely as higher doses are partitioned to the brain to a greater extent. 1-2g is typically used.
Doses should be titrated to suit the individual, as too high of a dose at any given time may give the user a headache. It is suggested that doses start out at 50-100mg daily and that users adjust upwards in accordance with their tolerance.
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Choline is a compound that exerts most of its benefits through increased acetylcholine levels and acting as a methyl donor (a compound which gives a methyl group to another in order to complete a reaction in the body).
When a high dose is taken acutely, choline can make its way to the brain and increase acetylcholine levels and acutely increase focus, muscle contraction potency, and potentially memory formation (all dependent on external stimuli like exercise or study).
When taken in lower doses throughout the day, more of the choline is devoted to methyl donation, which can be seen as metabolic maintenance. By having an abundance of choline (or any methyl donor such as TMG or methionine) in your body, you can keep reactions that require a methyl donation functioning at optimal capacity.
Choline supplementation seems to alleviate the neurological decline associated with aging which is suspected to be caused by declines in choline uptake rate into the brain as well as reduced amounts of methyl donators.
Choline supplementation can also reduce levels of homocysteine in the blood via methyl donation. Homocysteine is a prominent risk factor for heart disease.
Choline has also been linked to increased endurance performance and a choline-like compound (Alpha-GPC) has been shown to increase acute power output and post-workout growth hormone release. These benefits may extend to choline as the mechanism of action seems to be through acetylcholine.
Choline is turned into the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine via the enzyme Choline Acetyltransferase (ChAT). Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction and is implicated in memory formation.
It is known that trimethylamine compounds (choline and betaine) can be metabolized by intestinal bacteria to form the gas trimethylamine (TMA) which is reminiscient of rotting fish[1] but is absorbed through the colon wall and is metabolized by flavin monooxygenase (FMO3 in particular) to form odourless trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO).[2][3] When fed to mice when their normal chow diet (0.08-0.09% choline) was enhanced to either 0.5% or 1% choline by weight the higher doses were able to accelerate formation of artherosclerotic lesions; these lesions were highly corrected with serum TMAO and with hepatic FMO3 expression which was higher in female rats (1,000-fold).[4] This study also confirmed that suppression of gastrointestinal flora (with antibiotics) reduced serum TMAO increases from dietary choline and prevented the increase in atherogenesis from choline (which appears to be mediated via TMAO) and that isotopically labelled oral choline products were found to be labelled TMAO; strongly suggesting a direct metabolic conversion.[4] This paper has a few responses which are catered to prescribing possible solutions to the 'problematic' metabolism,[5] commenting on intestinal metabolism,[6] or commenting on the metabolonomic approach.[7]
Preliminary (fairly convincing) that the metabolite of choline known as TMAO can be pro-artherogenic while choline itself does not appear to be pro-artherogenic, although ingestion of choline begets metabolism into TMAO
Production of Trimethylamine from supplemental choline (27mM) has been noted in humans up to 18mM with Choline Chloride and 10mM with Choline stearate, but none with Lecithin.[8] Similar lack of effects have been noted with lecithin and betaine elsewhere.[3]
Dietary choline sources, including lecithin (phosphatidylcholine), fail to significantly increase serum TMAO in humans
Choline is able to donate methyl groups via acting as a betaine, or a compound with a positively charged cationic group that is overall neutral.
One of the most salient methyl donations undergone via choline is the methylation of homocysteine into methionine. Choline (Trimethylethanolamine) donates a methyl group to homocysteine and then itself becomes Dimethylethanolamine, or the compound DMAE.
Choline is able to exert many health benefits to the liver via methyl donation, increasing the availability of methyl groups for the methylation of toxic substances. This allows the body to more efficiently and quickly process toxic materials for excretion.
Diets deficient in choline (vegan and vegetarian diets as well as highly hypocaloric diets) are typically at a higher risk of liver cancers and susceptibility to toxins due to low methyl donor amounts. Choline supplementation reverses this.
Choline is able to halt and occasionally reverse the progression of fatty liver disease in humans.
One study measuring choline intake in mothers and the effects on the offspring noted that consumption of 930mg choline per day (during the 12 weeks of the third trimester) was able to reduce genetic expression of cortisol production in their offspring.[9]
Decreased choline uptake in older individuals
Cancer and toxin protecting effects on the liver by methyl donors
Choline supplementation and endurance events
Choline partitioning to neurological tissue in high doses
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