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Appetite

The desire to eat food, independent of whether food is actually eaten or not. This pools together both physical hunger and subjective appetite, since studies measure this by self-report survey.

Our evidence-based analysis on appetite features 105 unique references to scientific papers.

Kamal Patel
Research analysis led by .
Reviewed by
Examine.com Team
Last Updated:

References

  1. Simons D, et al. The effect of medicated chewing gums on oral health in frail older people: a 1-year clinical trial. J Am Geriatr Soc. (2002)
  2. Fu Y, et al. Assessment of chewing sugar-free gums for oral debris reduction: a randomized controlled crossover clinical trial. Am J Dent. (2012)
  3. Itthagarun A, Wei SH. Chewing gum and saliva in oral health. J Clin Dent. (1997)
  4. Wessel SW, et al. Quantification and qualification of bacteria trapped in chewed gum. PLoS One. (2015)
  5. Nayak PA, Nayak UA, Khandelwal V. The effect of xylitol on dental caries and oral flora. Clin Cosmet Investig Dent. (2014)
  6. Smith A. Effects of chewing gum on mood, learning, memory and performance of an intelligence test. Nutr Neurosci. (2009)
  7. Tänzer U, von Fintel A, Eikermann T. Chewing gum and concentration performance. Psychol Rep. (2009)
  8. Tucha L, Simpson W. The role of time on task performance in modifying the effects of gum chewing on attention. Appetite. (2011)
  9. Johnson AJ, et al. Chewing gum moderates multi-task induced shifts in stress, mood, and alertness. A re-examination. Appetite. (2011)
  10. Johnson AJ, et al. The effect of chewing gum on physiological and self-rated measures of alertness and daytime sleepiness. Physiol Behav. (2012)
  11. Allen AP, Smith AP. Effects of chewing gum and time-on-task on alertness and attention. Nutr Neurosci. (2012)
  12. Allen AP, Smith AP. Demand characteristics, pre-test attitudes and time-on-task trends in the effects of chewing gum on attention and reported mood in healthy volunteers. Appetite. (2012)
  13. Johnson AJ, Muneem M, Miles C. Chewing gum benefits sustained attention in the absence of task degradation. Nutr Neurosci. (2013)
  14. Hirano Y, et al. Effects of chewing on cognitive processing speed. Brain Cogn. (2013)
  15. Allen AP, Jacob TJ, Smith AP. Effects and after-effects of chewing gum on vigilance, heart rate, EEG and mood. Physiol Behav. (2014)
  16. Allen AP, Smith AP. Chewing gum: cognitive performance, mood, well-being, and associated physiology. Biomed Res Int. (2015)
  17. Tucha O, et al. Chewing gum differentially affects aspects of attention in healthy subjects. Appetite. (2004)
  18. Hirano Y, Onozuka M. Chewing and attention: a positive effect on sustained attention. Biomed Res Int. (2015)
  19. Tucha L, et al. Detrimental effects of gum chewing on vigilance in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Appetite. (2010)
  20. Scholey A, et al. Chewing gum alleviates negative mood and reduces cortisol during acute laboratory psychological stress. Physiol Behav. (2009)
  21. Zibell S, Madansky E. Impact of gum chewing on stress levels: online self-perception research study. Curr Med Res Opin. (2009)
  22. Sasaki-Otomaru A, et al. Effect of regular gum chewing on levels of anxiety, mood, and fatigue in healthy young adults. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health. (2011)
  23. Sketchley-Kaye K, et al. Chewing gum modifies state anxiety and alertness under conditions of social stress. Nutr Neurosci. (2011)
  24. Gray G, et al. The contrasting physiological and subjective effects of chewing gum on social stress. Appetite. (2012)
  25. Smith AP, Chaplin K, Wadsworth E. Chewing gum, occupational stress, work performance and wellbeing. An intervention study. Appetite. (2012)
  26. Smith AP, Woods M. Effects of chewing gum on the stress and work of university students. Appetite. (2012)
  27. Smith A. Effects of chewing gum on stress and health: a replication and investigation of dose-response. Stress Health. (2013)
  28. Konno M, et al. Relationships Between Gum-Chewing and Stress. Adv Exp Med Biol. (2016)
  29. Torney LK, Johnson AJ, Miles C. Chewing gum and impasse-induced self-reported stress. Appetite. (2009)
  30. Ekuni D, et al. Gum chewing modulates heart rate variability under noise stress. Acta Odontol Scand. (2012)
  31. Walker J, et al. Chewing unflavored gum does not reduce cortisol levels during a cognitive task but increases the response of the sympathetic nervous system. Physiol Behav. (2016)
  32. Hasegawa Y, et al. Flavor-Enhanced Modulation of Cerebral Blood Flow during Gum Chewing. PLoS One. (2013)
  33. Morinushi T, et al. Effect on electroencephalogram of chewing flavored gum. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. (2000)
  34. Hetherington MM, Boyland E. Short-term effects of chewing gum on snack intake and appetite. Appetite. (2007)
  35. Hetherington MM, Regan MF. Effects of chewing gum on short-term appetite regulation in moderately restrained eaters. Appetite. (2011)
  36. Melanson KJ, Kresge DL. Chewing gum decreases energy intake at lunch following a controlled breakfast. Appetite. (2017)
  37. Park E, et al. Short-term effects of chewing gum on satiety and afternoon snack intake in healthy weight and obese women. Physiol Behav. (2016)
  38. Xu J, et al. The effect of gum chewing on blood GLP-1 concentration in fasted, healthy, non-obese men. Endocrine. (2015)
  39. Lippi G, Cervellin G, Mattiuzzi C. Gum-Chewing and Headache: An Underestimated Trigger of Headache Pain in Migraineurs?. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. (2015)
  40. Watemberg N, et al. The influence of excessive chewing gum use on headache frequency and severity among adolescents. Pediatr Neurol. (2014)
  41. Tabrizi R, et al. Does gum chewing increase the prevalence of temporomandibular disorders in individuals with gum chewing habits?. J Craniofac Surg. (2014)
  42. Graff-Radford SB. Temporomandibular disorders and headache. Dent Clin North Am. (2007)
  43. Sullivan AC, et al. Effect of (-)-hydroxycitrate upon the accumulation of lipid in the rat. II. Appetite. Lipids. (1974)
  44. Heymsfield SB, et al. Garcinia cambogia (hydroxycitric acid) as a potential antiobesity agent: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. (1998)
  45. Kim JE, et al. Does Glycine max leaves or Garcinia Cambogia promote weight-loss or lower plasma cholesterol in overweight individuals: a randomized control trial. Nutr J. (2011)
  46. Mattes RD, Bormann L. Effects of (-)-hydroxycitric acid on appetitive variables. Physiol Behav. (2000)
  47. Leonhardt M, Hrupka B, Langhans W. Effect of hydroxycitrate on food intake and body weight regain after a period of restrictive feeding in male rats. Physiol Behav. (2001)
  48. Leonhardt M, Balkan B, Langhans W. Effect of hydroxycitrate on respiratory quotient, energy expenditure, and glucose tolerance in male rats after a period of restrictive feeding. Nutrition. (2004)
  49. Storey ML, Forshee RA, Anderson PA. Beverage consumption in the US population. J Am Diet Assoc. (2006)
  50. Stellman SD, Garfinkel L. Artificial sweetener use and one-year weight change among women. Prev Med. (1986)
  51. Fowler SP, et al. Fueling the obesity epidemic? Artificially sweetened beverage use and long-term weight gain. Obesity (Silver Spring). (2008)
  52. Mattes RD, Popkin BM. Nonnutritive sweetener consumption in humans: effects on appetite and food intake and their putative mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr. (2009)
  53. Prevalence of overweight, obesity and extreme obesity among adults: United States, trends 1960-62 through 2005-2006.
  54. Gain weight by “going diet?” Artificial sweeteners and the neurobiology of sugar cravings.
  55. Colditz GA, et al. Patterns of weight change and their relation to diet in a cohort of healthy women. Am J Clin Nutr. (1990)
  56. Evaluation of the influence of intense sweeteners on the short-term control of appetite and caloric intake: a psychobiological approach.
  57. Rogers PJ, Blundell JE. Intense sweeteners and appetite. Am J Clin Nutr. (1993)
  58. Teff KL, Devine J, Engelman K. Sweet taste: effect on cephalic phase insulin release in men. Physiol Behav. (1995)
  59. Hall WL, et al. Physiological mechanisms mediating aspartame-induced satiety. Physiol Behav. (2003)
  60. Horwitz DL, McLane M, Kobe P. Response to single dose of aspartame or saccharin by NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care. (1988)
  61. Okuno G, et al. Glucose tolerance, blood lipid, insulin and glucagon concentration after single or continuous administration of aspartame in diabetics. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. (1986)
  62. Wolf-Novak LC, et al. Aspartame ingestion with and without carbohydrate in phenylketonuric and normal subjects: effect on plasma concentrations of amino acids, glucose, and insulin. Metabolism. (1990)
  63. Just T, et al. Cephalic phase insulin release in healthy humans after taste stimulation. Appetite. (2008)
  64. Oyama Y, et al. Carrier-mediated transport systems for glucose in mucosal cells of the human oral cavity. J Pharm Sci. (1999)
  65. Carlson HE, Shah JH. Aspartame and its constituent amino acids: effects on prolactin, cortisol, growth hormone, insulin, and glucose in normal humans. Am J Clin Nutr. (1989)
  66. Rogers PJ, Blundell JE. Reanalysis of the effects of phenylalanine, alanine, and aspartame on food intake in human subjects. Physiol Behav. (1994)
  67. Porikos KP, Booth G, Van Itallie TB. Effect of covert nutritive dilution on the spontaneous food intake of obese individuals: a pilot study. Am J Clin Nutr. (1977)
  68. Williams CL, Strobino BA, Brotanek J. Weight control among obese adolescents: a pilot study. Int J Food Sci Nutr. (2007)
  69. Knopp RH, Brandt K, Arky RA. Effects of aspartame in young persons during weight reduction. J Toxicol Environ Health. (1976)
  70. Ebbeling CB, et al. Effects of decreasing sugar-sweetened beverage consumption on body weight in adolescents: a randomized, controlled pilot study. Pediatrics. (2006)
  71. Brown RJ, de Banate MA, Rother KI. Artificial sweeteners: a systematic review of metabolic effects in youth. Int J Pediatr Obes. (2010)
  72. Swithers SE, Davidson TL. A role for sweet taste: calorie predictive relations in energy regulation by rats. Behav Neurosci. (2008)
  73. Ambrus JL, et al. Effect of galactose and sugar substitutes on blood insulin levels in normal and obese individuals. J Med. (1976)
  74. National Academies of Sciences, et al. The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research.
  75. Cota D, et al. Endogenous cannabinoid system as a modulator of food intake. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. (2003)
  76. Riggs PK, et al. A pilot study of the effects of cannabis on appetite hormones in HIV-infected adult men. Brain Res. (2012)
  77. Bermudez-Silva FJ, et al. The cannabinoid CB1 receptor and mTORC1 signalling pathways interact to modulate glucose homeostasis in mice. Dis Model Mech. (2016)
  78. Puighermanal E, et al. Dissociation of the pharmacological effects of THC by mTOR blockade. Neuropsychopharmacology. (2013)
  79. Patel S, Cone RD. Neuroscience: a cellular basis for the munchies. Nature. (2015)
  80. Mattes RD, et al. Cannabinoids and appetite stimulation. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. (1994)
  81. Muniyappa R, et al. Metabolic effects of chronic cannabis smoking. Diabetes Care. (2013)
  82. Penner EA, Buettner H, Mittleman MA. The impact of marijuana use on glucose, insulin, and insulin resistance among US adults. Am J Med. (2013)
  83. Rajavashisth TB, et al. Decreased prevalence of diabetes in marijuana users: cross-sectional data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III. BMJ Open. (2012)
  84. Smit E, Crespo CJ. Dietary intake and nutritional status of US adult marijuana users: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Public Health Nutr. (2001)
  85. Le Strat Y, Le Foll B. Obesity and cannabis use: results from 2 representative national surveys. Am J Epidemiol. (2011)
  86. Rodondi N, et al. Marijuana use, diet, body mass index, and cardiovascular risk factors (from the CARDIA study). Am J Cardiol. (2006)
  87. Foltin RW, Fischman MW, Byrne MF. Effects of smoked marijuana on food intake and body weight of humans living in a residential laboratory. Appetite. (1988)
  88. Jones RT, Benowitz NL, Herning RI. Clinical relevance of cannabis tolerance and dependence. J Clin Pharmacol. (1981)
  89. Benowitz NL, Jones RT. Cardiovascular effects of prolonged delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol ingestion. Clin Pharmacol Ther. (1975)
  90. Whiting PF, et al. Cannabinoids for Medical Use: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA. (2015)
  91. Lutge EE, Gray A, Siegfried N. The medical use of cannabis for reducing morbidity and mortality in patients with HIV/AIDS. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. (2013)
  92. Haney M, et al. Dronabinol and marijuana in HIV-positive marijuana smokers. Caloric intake, mood, and sleep. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. (2007)
  93. Fearon K, et al. Definition and classification of cancer cachexia: an international consensus. Lancet Oncol. (2011)
  94. Cannabis-In-Cachexia-Study-Group, et al. Comparison of orally administered cannabis extract and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in treating patients with cancer-related anorexia-cachexia syndrome: a multicenter, phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial from the Cannabis-In-Cachexia-Study-Group. J Clin Oncol. (2006)
  95. Jatoi A, et al. Dronabinol versus megestrol acetate versus combination therapy for cancer-associated anorexia: a North Central Cancer Treatment Group study. J Clin Oncol. (2002)
  96. Andries A, Gram B, Støving RK. Effect of dronabinol therapy on physical activity in anorexia nervosa: a randomised, controlled trial. Eat Weight Disord. (2015)
  97. Andries A, et al. Dronabinol in severe, enduring anorexia nervosa: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Eat Disord. (2014)
  98. Bensaid M, et al. The cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716 increases Acrp30 mRNA expression in adipose tissue of obese fa/fa rats and in cultured adipocyte cells. Mol Pharmacol. (2003)
  99. Arita Y, et al. Paradoxical decrease of an adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in obesity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. (1999)
  100. Goldstein BJ, Scalia R. Adiponectin: A novel adipokine linking adipocytes and vascular function. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. (2004)
  101. Christopoulou FD, Kiortsis DN. An overview of the metabolic effects of rimonabant in randomized controlled trials: potential for other cannabinoid 1 receptor blockers in obesity. J Clin Pharm Ther. (2011)
  102. Després JP, et al. Effects of rimonabant on metabolic risk factors in overweight patients with dyslipidemia. N Engl J Med. (2005)
  103. Sam AH, Salem V, Ghatei MA. Rimonabant: From RIO to Ban. J Obes. (2011)
  104. Chavez-Tapia NC, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis on the adverse events of rimonabant treatment: considerations for its potential use in hepatology. BMC Gastroenterol. (2009)
  105. Moreira FA, Crippa JA. The psychiatric side-effects of rimonabant. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. (2009)

This page is regularly updated, to include the most recently available clinical trial evidence.

Each member of our research team is required to have no conflicts of interest, including with supplement manufacturers, food companies, and industry funders. The team includes nutrition researchers, registered dietitians, physicians, and pharmacists. We have a strict editorial process.

This page features 105 references. All factual claims are followed by specifically-applicable references. Click here to see the full set of research information and references for Appetite.

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