Vitamin D

Last Updated: February 6, 2024

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that our skin synthesizes when exposed to the sun. It benefits us in many ways, from bone health to mood.

Vitamin D is most often used for

What is vitamin D?

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble nutrient. It is one of the 24 micronutrients critical for human survival. The sun is the major natural source, through eliciting vitamin D production in the skin, but vitamin D is also found naturally in oily fish and eggs and is often added to milk and milk alternatives.

What are vitamin D’s main benefits?

Supplemental vitamin D is associated with a range of benefits, including improved immune health, bone health, and well-being. Supplementation may also reduce the risk of cancer mortality, diabetes, and multiple sclerosis. Vitamin D is often taken for depression and similar mental health issues, but the evidence is mixed as to whether supplementation improves these outcomes.

The effects of vitamin D likely depend on a person’s circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D; a form of vitamin D that is measured in blood samples to determine vitamin D status), and many of the benefits of supplementation will only be seen when a deficiency is reversed.

What are vitamin D’s main drawbacks?

Very high vitamin D levels in the blood exceeding 375 nmol/L or 150 ng/mL are toxic, potentially causing side effects such as loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, muscle weakness, confusion, dehydration, excessive thirst, and kidney stones.[1] Extremely high blood levels of vitamin D can even be fatal.[2]

Since vitamin D production in the skin is self-limiting, sun exposure is unlikely to produce vitamin D levels that cause harm (although it may be possible for people with constant, high-level sun exposure, e.g., lifeguards, to synthesize harmfully high levels of Vitamin D)[3]. However, vitamin D levels in the blood can readily reach toxic levels with chronic, high-level supplementation.

Although ultra-high-level supplementation is universally considered to be toxic, there’s some debate on what constitutes the upper limit for safe, “moderate-level” supplementation. Taking around 4,000 IU of vitamin D per day for extended periods (≥6 months) seems to increase the risk of hypercalcemia (high blood calcium) and, among older adults, the likelihood of experiencing a fall.[4]

A few trials on older adults have found that vitamin D increased the risk of falls,[5][6] and one study observed a decrease in bone mineral density among women taking high doses of vitamin D.[7]

How does vitamin D work?

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Vitamin D exerts its effects by binding to and activating the vitamin D receptor (VDR). Upon binding vitamin D, the VDR functions as a transcription factor, regulating the activity of over 1,000 different genes.[8] This ‘genomic’ action of vitamin D tends to be slower-acting, requiring the synthesis of new mRNA and proteins to take effect.

Vitamin D also works through ‘non-genomic’ mechanisms, causing rapid activation of various signaling pathways within the cell. Although VDRs have been identified on cell membranes, it isn’t currently known whether the more rapid, non-genomic action of vitamin D occurs through membrane-associated vitamin D receptors, or a different cellular receptor.[9]

Although the most commonly associated effects of vitamin D on the body are associated with bone metabolism, the almost ubiquitous presence of VDRs in cells and tissues throughout the body indicates that vitamin D can affect a wide range of physiological processes.[10] The additional effects of vitamin D on the body include, but aren’t limited to, the following:[11]

  • Anticancer effects (promotion of cell death or suppressing proliferation in cancer cells)
  • Brain development[12]
  • Cell differentiation[13][14]
  • Anti-inflammatory effects[15]
  • Antioxidant effects[16]
  • Antibacterial effects (through vitamin D’s effects on immune cells, and its promotion of the expression of genes encoding antimicrobial peptides)[17]
  • Blood vessel protection[18]
  • Nervous system health
  • Calcium regulation
What else is Vitamin D known as?
Note that Vitamin D is also known as:
  • Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3)
  • Ergocalciferol (Vitamin D2)
Vitamin D should not be confused with:
  • 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D (Hormonally active yet not directly supplemented form)
  • Calcitriol
Dosage information

The recommended daily allowance for Vitamin D is currently set at 400–800 IU/day, but this may be too low for many adults. For moderate supplementation, a 1,000–2,000 IU dose of vitamin D3 is sufficient to meet the needs of most of the population. Higher daily doses are in the range of 20–80 IU per kilogram of body weight.

The Upper Tolerable Intake Level in the United States and Canada is 4,000 IU per day (IU/day). It’s been suggested that the true Upper Tolerable Intake Level may actually be as high as 10,000 IU/day, but there are limited data on health outcomes using doses near this amount.

Vitamin D3 supplementation (cholecalciferol) is recommended over D2 supplementation (ergocalciferol) because D3 tends to raise blood levels more effectively.

Vitamin D should be taken daily, with meals or a source of fat.

Examine Database: Vitamin D
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Update History
2024-02-06 00:30:03

Dosage info and a FAQ updated

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We updated our dosage info and fleshed out some material related to vitamin D's role in depression. No meaningful changes to take-home concepts.

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The information in this section is slated for renovation — it will soon be transformed into a more usable (and readable!) form in the coming months. As such, the text in this section may be out of date and not up to Examine’s current standards for writing style.

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  7. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Aloia J, Islam S, Mikhail MVitamin D and Acute Respiratory Infections—The PODA TrialOpen Forum Infect. Dis..()
  8. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Grant CC, Kaur S, Waymouth E, Mitchell EA, Scragg R, Ekeroma A, Stewart A, Crane J, Trenholme A, Camargo CA JrReduced primary care respiratory infection visits following pregnancy and infancy vitamin D supplementation: a randomised controlled trialActa Paediatr.(2015 Apr)
  9. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Greenberg L, Aloia JF, Bergman P, Dubnov-Raz G, Esposito S, Ganmaa D, Ginde AA, Goodall EC, Grant CC, Janssens W, Jensen ME, Kerley CP, Laaksi I, Manaseki-Holland S, Mauger D, Murdoch DR, Neale R, Rees JR, Simpson S, Stelmach I, Trilok Kumar G, Urashima M, Camargo CA, Griffiths CJ, Hooper RLVitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory infections: individual participant data meta-analysisHealth Technol Assess.(2019 Jan)
  10. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Ghasem Mosayebi, Ali Ghazavi, Keyvan Ghasami, Yahya Jand, Parviz KokhaeiTherapeutic effect of vitamin D3 in multiple sclerosis patientsImmunol Invest.(2011)
  11. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Margitta T Kampman, Linn H Steffensen, Svein I Mellgren, Lone JørgensenEffect of vitamin D3 supplementation on relapses, disease progression, and measures of function in persons with multiple sclerosis: exploratory outcomes from a double-blind randomised controlled trialMult Scler.(2012 Aug)
  12. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Pierrot-Deseilligny C, Rivaud-Péchoux S, Clerson P, de Paz R, Souberbielle JCRelationship between 25-OH-D serum level and relapse rate in multiple sclerosis patients before and after vitamin D supplementationTher Adv Neurol Disord.(2012 Jul)
  13. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - J Killestein, E L J Hoogervorst, M Reif, N F Kalkers, A C Van Loenen, P G M Staats, R W Gorter, B M J Uitdehaag, C H PolmanSafety, tolerability, and efficacy of orally administered cannabinoids in MSNeurology.(2002 May 14)
  14. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - P Fox, P G Bain, S Glickman, C Carroll, J ZajicekThe effect of cannabis on tremor in patients with multiple sclerosisNeurology.(2004 Apr 13)
  15. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Raymond Hupperts, Joost Smolders, Reinhold Vieth, Trygve Holmøy, Kurt Marhardt, Myriam Schluep, Joep Killestein, Frederik Barkhof, Manolo Beelke, Luigi M E Grimaldi, SOLAR Study GroupRandomized trial of daily high-dose vitamin D 3 in patients with RRMS receiving subcutaneous interferon β-1aNeurology.(2019 Nov 12)
  16. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - William Camu, Philippe Lehert, Charles Pierrot-Deseilligny, Patrick Hautecoeur, Anne Besserve, Anne-Sophie Jean Deleglise, Marianne Payet, Eric Thouvenot, Jean Claude SouberbielleCholecalciferol in relapsing-remitting MS: A randomized clinical trial (CHOLINE)Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm.(2019 Aug 6)
  17. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Jody Corey-Bloom, Tanya Wolfson, Anthony Gamst, Shelia Jin, Thomas D Marcotte, Heather Bentley, Ben GouauxSmoked cannabis for spasticity in multiple sclerosis: a randomized, placebo-controlled trialCMAJ.(2012 Jul 10)
  18. Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms - Vahid Shaygannejad, Mohsen Janghorbani, Fereshteh Ashtari, Hamed DehghanEffects of adjunct low-dose vitamin d on relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis progression: preliminary findings of a randomized placebo-controlled trialMult Scler Int.(2012)
  19. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Dubnov-Raz G, Rinat B, Hemilä H, Choleva L, Cohen AH, Constantini NWVitamin D supplementation and upper respiratory tract infections in adolescent swimmers: a randomized controlled trialPediatr Exerc Sci.(2015 Feb)
  20. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Murdoch DR, Slow S, Chambers ST, Jennings LC, Stewart AW, Priest PC, Florkowski CM, Livesey JH, Camargo CA, Scragg REffect of vitamin D3 supplementation on upper respiratory tract infections in healthy adults: the VIDARIS randomized controlled trialJAMA.(2012 Oct 3)
  21. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Li-Ng M, Aloia JF, Pollack S, Cunha BA, Mikhail M, Yeh J, Berbari NA randomized controlled trial of vitamin D3 supplementation for the prevention of symptomatic upper respiratory tract infectionsEpidemiol Infect.(2009 Oct)
  22. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Aglipay M, Birken CS, Parkin PC, Loeb MB, Thorpe K, Chen Y, Laupacis A, Mamdani M, Macarthur C, Hoch JS, Mazzulli T, Maguire JL, TARGet Kids! CollaborationEffect of High-Dose vs Standard-Dose Wintertime Vitamin D Supplementation on Viral Upper Respiratory Tract Infections in Young Healthy ChildrenJAMA.(2017 Jul 18)
  23. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Avenell A, Cook JA, Maclennan GS, Macpherson GCVitamin D supplementation to prevent infections: a sub-study of a randomised placebo-controlled trial in older people (RECORD trial, ISRCTN 51647438)Age Ageing.(2007 Sep)
  24. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Rees JR, Hendricks K, Barry EL, Peacock JL, Mott LA, Sandler RS, Bresalier RS, Goodman M, Bostick RM, Baron JAVitamin D3 supplementation and upper respiratory tract infections in a randomized, controlled trialClin Infect Dis.(2013 Nov)
  25. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Bergman P, Norlin AC, Hansen S, Rekha RS, Agerberth B, Björkhem-Bergman L, Ekström L, Lindh JD, Andersson JVitamin D3 supplementation in patients with frequent respiratory tract infections: a randomised and double-blind intervention studyBMJ Open.(2012 Dec 13)
  26. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Loeb M, Dang AD, Thiem VD, Thanabalan V, Wang B, Nguyen NB, Tran HTM, Luong TM, Singh P, Smieja M, Maguire J, Pullenayegum EEffect of Vitamin D supplementation to reduce respiratory infections in children and adolescents in Vietnam: A randomized controlled trialInfluenza Other Respir Viruses.(2019 Mar)
  27. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Simpson S, Mei I, Stewart N, Blizzard L, Tettey P, Taylor BWeekly cholecalciferol supplementation results in significant reductions in infection risk among the vitamin D deficient: results from the CIPRIS pilot RCTBMC Nutr.()
  28. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Hauger H, Ritz C, Mortensen C, Mølgaard C, Metzdorff SB, Frøkiær H, Damsgaard CTWinter cholecalciferol supplementation at 55°N has little effect on markers of innate immune defense in healthy children aged 4-8 years: a secondary analysis from a randomized controlled trialEur J Nutr.(2019 Jun)
  29. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Zittermann A, Frisch S, Berthold HK, Götting C, Kuhn J, Kleesiek K, Stehle P, Koertke H, Koerfer RVitamin D supplementation enhances the beneficial effects of weight loss on cardiovascular disease risk markersAm J Clin Nutr.(2009 May)
  30. Interleukin 5 - Barker T, Martins TB, Hill HR, Kjeldsberg CR, Henriksen VT, Dixon BM, Schneider ED, Dern A, Weaver LKDifferent doses of supplemental vitamin D maintain interleukin-5 without altering skeletal muscle strength: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in vitamin D sufficient adultsNutr Metab (Lond).(2012 Mar 9)
  31. Tuberculosis Symptoms - Ganmaa D, Giovannucci E, Bloom BR, Fawzi W, Burr W, Batbaatar D, Sumberzul N, Holick MF, Willett WCVitamin D, tuberculin skin test conversion, and latent tuberculosis in Mongolian school-age children: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled feasibility trialAm J Clin Nutr.(2012 Aug)
  32. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Goodall EC, Granados AC, Luinstra K, Pullenayegum E, Coleman BL, Loeb M, Smieja MVitamin D3 and gargling for the prevention of upper respiratory tract infections: a randomized controlled trialBMC Infect Dis.(2014 May 19)
  33. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Shimizu Y, Ito Y, Yui K, Egawa K, Orimo HIntake of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 Reduces Duration and Severity of Upper Respiratory Tract Infection: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel Group Comparison StudyJ Nutr Health Aging.(2018)
  34. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Jung HC, Seo MW, Lee S, Kim SW, Song JKVitamin D₃ Supplementation Reduces the Symptoms of Upper Respiratory Tract Infection during Winter Training in Vitamin D-Insufficient Taekwondo Athletes: A Randomized Controlled TrialInt J Environ Res Public Health.(2018 Sep 14)
  35. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Martineau AR, Hanifa Y, Witt KD, Barnes NC, Hooper RL, Patel M, Stevens N, Enayat Z, Balayah Z, Syed A, Knight A, Jolliffe DA, Greiller CL, McLaughlin D, Venton TR, Rowe M, Timms PM, Clark D, Sadique Z, Eldridge SM, Griffiths CJDouble-blind randomised controlled trial of vitamin D3 supplementation for the prevention of acute respiratory infection in older adults and their carers (ViDiFlu)Thorax.(2015 Oct)
  36. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Laaksi I, Ruohola JP, Mattila V, Auvinen A, Ylikomi T, Pihlajamäki HVitamin D supplementation for the prevention of acute respiratory tract infection: a randomized, double-blinded trial among young Finnish menJ Infect Dis.(2010 Sep 1)
  37. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Camargo CA Jr, Ganmaa D, Frazier AL, Kirchberg FF, Stuart JJ, Kleinman K, Sumberzul N, Rich-Edwards JWRandomized trial of vitamin D supplementation and risk of acute respiratory infection in MongoliaPediatrics.(2012 Sep)
  38. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Risk - Camargo CA, Sluyter J, Stewart AW, Khaw KT, Lawes CMM, Toop L, Waayer D, Scragg REffect of monthly high-dose vitamin D supplementation on acute respiratory infections in older adults: A randomized controlled trialClin Infect Dis.(2019 Aug 17)
  39. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Manaseki-Holland S, Qader G, Isaq Masher M, Bruce J, Zulf Mughal M, Chandramohan D, Walraven GEffects of vitamin D supplementation to children diagnosed with pneumonia in Kabul: a randomised controlled trialTrop Med Int Health.(2010 Oct)
  40. Pneumonia Symptoms - Choudhary N, Gupta PVitamin D supplementation for severe pneumonia--a randomized controlled trialIndian Pediatr.(2012 Jun)
  41. Risk Of Cardiovascular Disease - Wang L, Manson JE, Song Y, Sesso HDSystematic review: Vitamin D and calcium supplementation in prevention of cardiovascular eventsAnn Intern Med.(2010 Mar 2)
  42. Pain - McAlindon T, LaValley M, Schneider E, Nuite M, Lee JY, Price LL, Lo G, Dawson-Hughes BEffect of vitamin D supplementation on progression of knee pain and cartilage volume loss in patients with symptomatic osteoarthritis: a randomized controlled trialJAMA.(2013 Jan 9)
  43. Glycemic Control - Carrillo AE, Flynn MG, Pinkston C, Markofski MM, Jiang Y, Donkin SS, Teegarden DImpact of vitamin D supplementation during a resistance training intervention on body composition, muscle function, and glucose tolerance in overweight and obese adultsClin Nutr.(2012 Aug 31)
  44. Glycemic Control - Harris SS, Pittas AG, Palermo NJA randomized, placebo-controlled trial of vitamin D supplementation to improve glycaemia in overweight and obese African AmericansDiabetes Obes Metab.(2012 Sep)
  45. Lean Mass - Salehpour A, Hosseinpanah F, Shidfar F, Vafa M, Razaghi M, Dehghani S, Hoshiarrad A, Gohari MA 12-week double-blind randomized clinical trial of vitamin D3 supplementation on body fat mass in healthy overweight and obese womenNutr J.(2012 Sep 22)
  46. Pulse Wave Velocity - Rajakumar K, Moore CG, Khalid AT, Vallejo AN, Virji MA, Holick MF, Greenspan SL, Arslanian S, Reis SEEffect of vitamin D3 supplementation on vascular and metabolic health of vitamin D-deficient overweight and obese children: a randomized clinical trial.Am J Clin Nutr.(2020-Apr-01)
  47. Fibromyalgia Symptoms - Florian Wepner, Raphael Scheuer, Birgit Schuetz-Wieser, Peter Machacek, Elisabeth Pieler-Bruha, Heide S Cross, Julia Hahne, Martin FriedrichEffects of vitamin D on patients with fibromyalgia syndrome: a randomized placebo-controlled trialPain.(2014 Feb)
  48. Fibromyalgia Symptoms - J F de Carvalho, F A G da Rocha Araújo, L M A da Mota, R B Aires, R P de AraujoVitamin D Supplementation Seems to Improve Fibromyalgia Symptoms: Preliminary ResultsIsr Med Assoc J.(2018 Jun)
  49. Fibromyalgia Symptoms - Atalay Dogru, Ayse Balkarli, Veli Cobankara, Sevket Ercan Tunc, Mehmet SahinEffects of Vitamin D Therapy on Quality of Life in Patients with FibromyalgiaEurasian J Med.(2017 Jun)
  50. Fever - Urashima M, Segawa T, Okazaki M, Kurihara M, Wada Y, Ida HRandomized trial of vitamin D supplementation to prevent seasonal influenza A in schoolchildrenAm J Clin Nutr.(2010 May)
  51. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Zhou J, Du J, Huang L, Wang Y, Shi Y, Lin HPreventive Effects of Vitamin D on Seasonal Influenza A in Infants: A Multicenter, Randomized, Open, Controlled Clinical TrialPediatr Infect Dis J.(2018 Aug)
  52. Influenza Risk - Jorde R, Witham M, Janssens W, Rolighed L, Borchhardt K, de Boer IH, Grimnes G, Hutchinson MSVitamin D supplementation did not prevent influenza-like illness as diagnosed retrospectively by questionnaires in subjects participating in randomized clinical trialsScand J Infect Dis.(2012 Feb)
  53. Influenza Risk - Urashima M, Mezawa H, Noya M, Camargo CA JrEffects of vitamin D supplements on influenza A illness during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic: a randomized controlled trialFood Funct.(2014 Sep)
  54. Testosterone - Pilz S, Frisch S, Koertke H, Kuhn J, Dreier J, Obermayer-Pietsch B, Wehr E, Zittermann AEffect of vitamin D supplementation on testosterone levels in menHorm Metab Res.(2011 Mar)
  55. Risk Of Cardiovascular Disease - Dobnig H, Pilz S, Scharnagl H, Renner W, Seelhorst U, Wellnitz B, Kinkeldei J, Boehm BO, Weihrauch G, Maerz WIndependent association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin d levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortalityArch Intern Med.(2008 Jun 23)
  56. Risk Of Cardiovascular Disease - Parker J, Hashmi O, Dutton D, Mavrodaris A, Stranges S, Kandala NB, Clarke A, Franco OHLevels of vitamin D and cardiometabolic disorders: systematic review and meta-analysisMaturitas.(2010 Mar)
  57. COVID-19 Severity - Igor H Murai, Alan L Fernandes, Lucas P Sales, Ana J Pinto, Karla F Goessler, Camila S C Duran, Carla B R Silva, André S Franco, Marina B Macedo, Henrique H H Dalmolin, Janaina Baggio, Guilherme G M Balbi, Bruna Z Reis, Leila Antonangelo, Valeria F Caparbo, Bruno Gualano, Rosa M R PereiraEffect of a Single High Dose of Vitamin D3 on Hospital Length of Stay in Patients With Moderate to Severe COVID-19: A Randomized Clinical TrialJAMA.(2021 Mar 16)
  58. COVID-19 Severity - Shaun Sabico, Mushira A Enani, Eman Sheshah, Naji J Aljohani, Dara A Aldisi, Naif H Alotaibi, Naemah Alshingetti, Suliman Y Alomar, Abdullah M Alnaami, Osama E Amer, Syed D Hussain, Nasser M Al-DaghriEffects of a 2-Week 5000 IU versus 1000 IU Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Recovery of Symptoms in Patients with Mild to Moderate Covid-19: A Randomized Clinical TrialNutrients.(2021 Jun 24)
  59. COVID-19 Severity - Marta Entrenas Castillo, Luis Manuel Entrenas Costa, José Manuel Vaquero Barrios, Juan Francisco Alcalá Díaz, José López Miranda, Roger Bouillon, José Manuel Quesada Gomez"Effect of calcifediol treatment and best available therapy versus best available therapy on intensive care unit admission and mortality among patients hospitalized for COVID-19: A pilot randomized clinical study"J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol.(2020 Oct)
  60. Breast Cancer Risk - Garland CF, Gorham ED, Mohr SB, Grant WB, Giovannucci EL, Lipkin M, Newmark H, Holick MF, Garland FCVitamin D and prevention of breast cancer: pooled analysisJ Steroid Biochem Mol Biol.(2007 Mar)
  61. Breast Cancer Risk - Crew KD, Gammon MD, Steck SE, Hershman DL, Cremers S, Dworakowski E, Shane E, Terry MB, Desai M, Teitelbaum SL, Neugut AI, Santella RMAssociation between plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and breast cancer riskCancer Prev Res (Phila).(2009 Jun)
  62. Aromatase-Inhibitor Related Joint Pain - Qamar J Khan, Pavan S Reddy, Bruce F Kimler, Priyanka Sharma, Susan E Baxa, Anne P O'Dea, Jennifer R Klemp, Carol J FabianEffect of vitamin D supplementation on serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels, joint pain, and fatigue in women starting adjuvant letrozole treatment for breast cancerBreast Cancer Res Treat.(2010 Jan)
  63. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Seibert E, Lehmann U, Riedel A, Ulrich C, Hirche F, Brandsch C, Dierkes J, Girndt M, Stangl GIVitamin D3 supplementation does not modify cardiovascular risk profile of adults with inadequate vitamin D statusEur J Nutr.(2015 Nov 30)
  64. Inflammation - Gepner AD, Ramamurthy R, Krueger DC, Korcarz CE, Binkley N, Stein JHA prospective randomized controlled trial of the effects of vitamin D supplementation on cardiovascular disease riskPLoS One.(2012)
  65. Blood Pressure - Scragg R, Sowers M, Bell CSerum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, ethnicity, and blood pressure in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination SurveyAm J Hypertens.(2007 Jul)
  66. Sleep Duration - Majid MS, Ahmad HS, Bizhan H, Hosein HZM, Mohammad AThe effect of vitamin D supplement on the score and quality of sleep in 20-50 year-old people with sleep disorders compared with control groupNutr Neurosci.(2018 Sep)
  67. Fibromyalgia Symptoms - David S Arvold, Marilyn J Odean, Maude P Dornfeld, Ronald R Regal, Judith G Arvold, Gene C Karwoski, David J Mast, Paul B Sanford, Robert J SjobergCorrelation of symptoms with vitamin D deficiency and symptom response to cholecalciferol treatment: a randomized controlled trialEndocr Pract.(2009 Apr)
  68. Parathyroid Hormone - David D Chandy, Jahnavi Kare, Shakal N Singh, Anjoo Agarwal, Vinita Das, Urmila Singh, V Ramesh, Vijayalakshmi BhatiaEffect of vitamin D supplementation, directly or via breast milk for term infants, on serum 25 hydroxyvitamin D and related biochemistry, and propensity to infection: a randomised placebo-controlled trialBr J Nutr.(2016 Jul)
  69. Type 1 Diabetes Incidence - Mohr SB, Garland CF, Gorham ED, Garland FCThe association between ultraviolet B irradiance, vitamin D status and incidence rates of type 1 diabetes in 51 regions worldwideDiabetologia.(2008 Aug)
  70. Glycemic Control - A M Borissova, T Tankova, G Kirilov, L Dakovska, R KovachevaThe effect of vitamin D3 on insulin secretion and peripheral insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic patientsInt J Clin Pract.(2003 May)
  71. Insulin - Mitri J, Dawson-Hughes B, Hu FB, Pittas AGEffects of vitamin D and calcium supplementation on pancreatic β cell function, insulin sensitivity, and glycemia in adults at high risk of diabetes: the Calcium and Vitamin D for Diabetes Mellitus (CaDDM) randomized controlled trialAm J Clin Nutr.(2011 Aug)
  72. Calcium Absorption - Abrams SA, Hawthorne KM, Chen ZSupplementation with 1000 IU vitamin D/d leads to parathyroid hormone suppression, but not increased fractional calcium absorption, in 4-8-y-old children: a double-blind randomized controlled trialAm J Clin Nutr.(2013 Jan)
  73. Fracture Risk - Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Willett WC, Wong JB, Stuck AE, Staehelin HB, Orav EJ, Thoma A, Kiel DP, Henschkowski JPrevention of nonvertebral fractures with oral vitamin D and dose dependency: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trialsArch Intern Med.(2009 Mar 23)
  74. Bone turnover markers - Wu M, Bhimavarapu A, Alvarez JA, Hunt WR, Tangpricha VChanges in bone turnover after high-dose vitamin D supplementation during acute pulmonary exacerbation in cystic fibrosis.Bone.(2023-Sep)
  75. Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) - Heidari H, Amani R, Feizi A, Askari G, Kohan S, Tavasoli PVitamin D Supplementation for Premenstrual Syndrome-Related inflammation and antioxidant markers in students with vitamin D deficient: a randomized clinical trialSci Rep.(2019 Oct 17)
  76. Depression Symptoms - Dadkhah H, Ebrahimi E, Fathizadeh NEvaluating the effects of vitamin D and vitamin E supplement on premenstrual syndrome: A randomized, double-blind, controlled trialIran J Nurs Midwifery Res.(2016 Mar-Apr)
  77. Anxiety Symptoms - Abdollahi R, Abiri B, Sarbakhsh P, Kashanian M, Vafa MThe Effect of Vitamin D Supplement Consumption on Premenstrual Syndrome in Vitamin D-Deficient Young Girls: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical TrialComplement Med Res.(2019)
  78. Anxiety Symptoms - Tartagni M, Cicinelli MV, Tartagni MV, Alrasheed H, Matteo M, Baldini D, De Salvia M, Loverro G, Montagnani MVitamin D Supplementation for Premenstrual Syndrome-Related Mood Disorders in Adolescents with Severe Hypovitaminosis DJ Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol.(2016 Aug)
  79. Cramps - Bahrami A, Avan A, Sadeghnia HR, Esmaeili H, Tayefi M, Ghasemi F, Nejati Salehkhani F, Arabpour-Dahoue M, Rastgar-Moghadam A, Ferns GA, Bahrami-Taghanaki H, Ghayour-Mobarhan MHigh dose vitamin D supplementation can improve menstrual problems, dysmenorrhea, and premenstrual syndrome in adolescentsGynecol Endocrinol.(2018 Aug)
  80. Glycemic Control - Shaban Nazarian, John V St Peter, Raymond C Boston, Sidney A Jones, Cary N MariashVitamin D3 supplementation improves insulin sensitivity in subjects with impaired fasting glucoseTransl Res.(2011 Nov)
  81. Insulin Resistance - Wallace HJ, Holmes L, Ennis CN, Cardwell CR, Woodside JV, Young IS, Bell PM, Hunter SJ, McKinley MCEffect of vitamin D3 supplementation on insulin resistance and β-cell function in prediabetes: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial.Am J Clin Nutr.(2019-Nov-01)
  82. Colorectal Cancer Risk - Gorham ED, Garland CF, Garland FC, Grant WB, Mohr SB, Lipkin M, Newmark HL, Giovannucci E, Wei M, Holick MFOptimal vitamin D status for colorectal cancer prevention: a quantitative meta analysisAm J Prev Med.(2007 Mar)
  83. Aromatase-Inhibitor Related Joint Pain - Prieto-Alhambra D, Javaid MK, Servitja S, Arden NK, Martinez-García M, Diez-Perez A, Albanell J, Tusquets I, Nogues XVitamin D threshold to prevent aromatase inhibitor-induced arthralgia: a prospective cohort studyBreast Cancer Res Treat.(2011 Feb)
  84. Insulin - Sepehrmanesh Z, Kolahdooz F, Abedi F, Mazroii N, Assarian A, Asemi Z, Esmaillzadeh AVitamin D Supplementation Affects the Beck Depression Inventory, Insulin Resistance, and Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized, Controlled Clinical TrialJ Nutr.(2016 Feb)
  85. All-Cause Mortality - Bjelakovic G, Gluud LL, Nikolova D, Whitfield K, Wetterslev J, Simonetti RG, Bjelakovic M, Gluud CVitamin D supplementation for prevention of mortality in adultsCochrane Database Syst Rev.(2011 Jul 6)
  86. Fall Risk - Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Dawson-Hughes B, Staehelin HB, Orav JE, Stuck AE, Theiler R, Wong JB, Egli A, Kiel DP, Henschkowski JFall prevention with supplemental and active forms of vitamin D: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trialsBMJ.(2009 Oct 1)
  87. Fall Risk - Broe KE, Chen TC, Weinberg J, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Holick MF, Kiel DPA higher dose of vitamin d reduces the risk of falls in nursing home residents: a randomized, multiple-dose studyJ Am Geriatr Soc.(2007 Feb)
  88. Fall Risk - Michos ED, Kalyani RR, Blackford AL, Sternberg AL, Mitchell CM, Juraschek SP, Schrack JA, Wanigatunga AA, Roth DL, Christenson RH, Miller ER, Appel LJThe Relationship of Falls With Achieved 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels From Vitamin D Supplementation: The STURDY Trial.J Endocr Soc.(2022-Jun-01)
  89. Functionality in Elderly or Injured - Guralnik JM, Sternberg AL, Mitchell CM, Blackford AL, Schrack J, Wanigatunga AA, Michos E, Juraschek SP, Szanton S, Kalyani R, Cai Y, Appel LJ,Effects of Vitamin D on Physical Function: Results From the STURDY Trial.J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci.(2022-Aug-12)
  90. HbA1c - Kositsawat J, Freeman VL, Gerber BS, Geraci SAssociation of A1C levels with vitamin D status in U.S. adults: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination SurveyDiabetes Care.(2010 Jun)
  91. Tuberculosis risk - Middelkoop K, Stewart J, Walker N, Delport C, Jolliffe DA, Coussens AK, Nuttall J, Tang JCY, Fraser WD, Griffiths CJ, Kumar GT, Filteau S, Hooper RL, Wilkinson RJ, Bekker LG, Martineau ARVitamin D supplementation to prevent tuberculosis infection in South African schoolchildren: multicenter phase 3 double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial (ViDiKids).Int J Infect Dis.(2023-Sep)
  92. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms - Somnath SH, Biswal N, Chandrasekaran V, Jagadisan B, Bobby ZTherapeutic effect of vitamin D in acute lower respiratory infection: A randomized controlled trialClin Nutr ESPEN.(2017 Aug)
  93. Power Output - Owens DJ, Sharples AP, Polydorou I, Alwan N, Donovan T, Tang J, Fraser WD, Cooper RG, Morton JP, Stewart C, Close GLA systems-based investigation into vitamin D and skeletal muscle repair, regeneration, and hypertrophyAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab.(2015 Dec 15)
  94. Pancreatic Cancer Risk - Skinner HG, Michaud DS, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Fuchs CSVitamin D intake and the risk for pancreatic cancer in two cohort studiesCancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev.(2006 Sep)
  95. Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms - Jingya Jia, Jing Hu, Xiaoxu Huo, Rujuan Miao, Yanping Zhang, Fei MaEffects of vitamin D supplementation on cognitive function and blood Aβ-related biomarkers in older adults with Alzheimer's disease: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialJ Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry.(2019 Dec)
  96. Blood Pressure - Witham MD, Nadir MA, Struthers ADEffect of vitamin D on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysisJ Hypertens.(2009 Oct)
  97. Otitis Media Risk - Marchisio P, Consonni D, Baggi E, Zampiero A, Bianchini S, Terranova L, Tirelli S, Esposito S, Principi NVitamin D supplementation reduces the risk of acute otitis media in otitis-prone childrenPediatr Infect Dis J.(2013 Oct)
  98. Cathelicidin - Sanders EC, Burkes RM, Mock JR, Brown TT, Wise RA, Hansel NN, Liu MC, Drummond MBBronchoalveolar Lavage and Plasma Cathelicidin Response to 25-Hydroxy Vitamin D Supplementation: A Pilot Study.Chronic Obstr Pulm Dis.(2021-Jul-28)
  99. Wound Healing - Halschou-Jensen PM, Sauer J, Bouchelouche P, Fabrin J, Brorson S, Ohrt-Nissen SImproved Healing of Diabetic Foot Ulcers After High-dose Vitamin D: A Randomized Double-blinded Clinical Trial.Int J Low Extrem Wounds.(2023-Sep)