Saffron

Last Updated: March 18, 2024

Saffron is a spice with antioxidant properties derived from the flowering plant Crocus sativus. When used as a supplement, saffron seems to be effective at reducing symptoms of depression and possibly anxiety.

Saffron is most often used for

What is saffron?

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a flowering plant in the iris family used in various domains for its taste, aroma, pigment, and medicinal properties. Saffron, sometimes called “red gold”, is the most expensive spice in the world and is produced predominantly in Iran.[4] The most prized part of the saffron plant is the dried red stigmas, which contain over 150 bioactive compounds including carotenoids (crocin, crocetin), terpenes (picrocrocin, safranol), and many other phytochemicals.[5]

What are saffron’s main benefits?

Saffron is a potent antioxidant and has shown consistent benefits for depression.[6]

When used in people with minor to moderate depression, saffron appears to be superior to placebo and comparable to some commonly used antidepressants (e.g., fluoxetine, citalopram) for reducing symptoms of depression and achieving remission.[7][8][9] Saffron may also reduce symptoms of anxiety, but this effect is less clearly established.[7]

While the evidence is promising, nearly all of the clinical trials have been conducted in Iran, sample sizes have been small (<100 people), and durations have been short (≤12 weeks). Larger and longer trials in more diverse populations are needed to further validate these effects and determine whether the benefits persist over time.

What are saffron’s main drawbacks?

The most common side effects of saffron include nausea, changes in appetite, dry mouth, headache, anxiety, and drowsiness.[10] Changes in blood parameters have been reported in studies using doses of 60–400 mg daily, although it’s not clear if this has any clinical implications.[11][10] At excessively high doses (1,200–2,000 mg), saffron has been reported to cause vomiting, diarrhea, and bleeding.[1] Supplementing with isolated crocin (one of the active compounds in saffron) at normal doses may raise serum creatinine levels, which could indicate a risk of kidney damage.[2]

There are concerns regarding the quality of saffron supplements. Some of the important compounds in saffron are sensitive to light, oxygen, and temperature. Further, the way saffron is grown, harvested, and processed can alter its chemical composition. Due to its high economic value, saffron has also historically been prone to adulteration.[12] These factors may lead to large variations in the types and amounts of active compounds found in a saffron supplement which could impact its effectiveness. Choosing a supplement that is third-party tested can help ensure its quality.

Lastly, most of the research on saffron has been conducted in Iran, and its effects on other populations require further validation.

How does saffron work?

Saffron contains many active compounds, but crocin, crocetin, safranol, and picrocrocin are considered to be the most important.[13] Following consumption, some of these compounds are transformed within the gastrointestinal tract, and the main compound found in the blood seems to be crocetin (although more research is needed in this department).[5]

Preclinical research suggests that saffron can influence the brain in a variety of ways, which likely explains its effects on mood and cognition. Saffron may prevent the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters — like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine — which allows their effects to persist for longer.[8] Saffron may also interact with the HPA axis, leading to reduced levels of cortisol, and might influence neuroplasticity by increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).[9]

As an antioxidant, saffron may increase the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2), leading to increased levels of antioxidant enzymes and an overall improved antioxidant capacity.[14][6] In animal studies, saffron has reduced oxidative stress in brain tissue.[15]

What else is Saffron known as?
Note that Saffron is also known as:
  • Crocus sativus L.
  • Crocin (a bioactive compound in saffron)
Saffron should not be confused with:
  • Turmeric (Indian saffron)
Dosage information

Saffron is usually taken at a dosage of 15 mg twice daily, for a total of 30 mg daily. While higher doses have been used, there is no clear benefit to this, and there may be an increased risk of side effects. Doses above 5 grams (5,000 mg) are considered toxic and doses above 20 grams (20,000 mg) may be lethal.[1]

Saffron supplements usually contain saffron stigma extract, which is the most studied form. However, whole dehydrated stigma or petals are sometimes used, and preliminary research suggests they may also be effective.

Crocin, one of the major active compounds in saffron, can be taken in isolation at a similar dose as saffron. While some research in the realm of depression and metabolic health has demonstrated similar effects,[2][3] there’s currently not enough evidence to support taking crocin instead of regular saffron supplements. Additionally, some research suggests that crocin may increase serum creatinine levels, which could indicate a safety risk for the kidneys.[2]

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References
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  3. ^Wang H, Jin M, Xie M, Yang Y, Xue F, Li W, Zhang M, Li Z, Li X, Jia N, Liu Y, Cui X, Hu G, Dong L, Wang G, Yu QProtective role of antioxidant supplementation for depression and anxiety: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.J Affect Disord.(2023-Feb-15)
  4. ^Sadat Rafiei SK, Abolghasemi S, Frashidi M, Ebrahimi S, Gharei F, Razmkhah Z, Tavousi N, Mahmoudvand B, Faani M, Karimi N, Abdi A, Soleimanzadeh M, Ahmadpour Youshanlui M, Sadatmadani SF, Alikhani R, Pishkari Y, Deravi NSaffron and Sleep Quality: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials.Nutr Metab Insights.(2023)
  5. ^Cerdá-Bernad D, Costa L, Serra AT, Bronze MR, Valero-Cases E, Pérez-Llamas F, Candela ME, Arnao MB, Barberán FT, Villalba RG, García-Conesa MT, Frutos MJSaffron against Neuro-Cognitive Disorders: An Overview of Its Main Bioactive Compounds, Their Metabolic Fate and Potential Mechanisms of Neurological Protection.Nutrients.(2022-Dec-17)
  6. ^Abedi A, Ghobadi H, Sharghi A, Iranpour S, Fazlzadeh M, Aslani MREffect of saffron supplementation on oxidative stress markers (MDA, TAC, TOS, GPx, SOD, and pro-oxidant/antioxidant balance): An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials.Front Med (Lausanne).(2023)
  7. ^Wolfgang Marx, Melissa Lane, Tetyana Rocks, Anu Ruusunen, Amy Loughman, Adrian Lopresti, Skye Marshall, Michael Berk, Felice Jacka, Olivia M DeanEffect of saffron supplementation on symptoms of depression and anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysisNutr Rev.(2019 May 28)
  8. ^Lili Dai, Lingyan Chen, Wenjing WangSafety and Efficacy of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) for Treating Mild to Moderate Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysisJ Nerv Ment Dis.(2020 Apr)
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  10. ^Bostan HB, Mehri S, Hosseinzadeh HToxicology effects of saffron and its constituents: a review.Iran J Basic Med Sci.(2017-Feb)
  11. ^Safarinejad MR, Shafiei N, Safarinejad SA prospective double-blind randomized placebo-controlled study of the effect of saffron (Crocus sativus Linn.) on semen parameters and seminal plasma antioxidant capacity in infertile men with idiopathic oligoasthenoteratozoospermiaPhytother Res.(2011 Apr)
  12. ^Aissa R, Ibourki M, Ait Bouzid H, Bijla L, Oubannin S, Sakar EH, Jadouali S, Hermansyah A, Goh KW, Ming LC, Bouyahya A, Gharby SPhytochemistry, quality control and medicinal uses of Saffron (.): an updated review.J Med Life.(2023-Jun)
  13. ^Seyedi-Sahebari S, Farhang S, Araj-Khodaei M, Akhondzadeh S, Naseri A, Sanaie S, Frounchi NThe Effects of (Saffron) on ADHD: A Systematic Review.J Atten Disord.(2024-Jan)
  14. ^Moini Jazani A, Karimi A, Nasimi Doost Azgomi RThe potential role of saffron (Crocus Sativus L.) and its components in oxidative stress in diabetes mellitus: A systematic review.Clin Nutr ESPEN.(2022-Apr)
  15. ^Hamedani SG, Pourmasoumi M, Zarifi SH, Askari G, Jamialahmadi T, Bagherniya M, Sahebkar ATherapeutic effects of saffron and its components on neurodegenerative diseases.Heliyon.(2024-Jan-30)
  16. ^Jinrong Lian, Yi Zhong, Hang Li, Siyuan Yang, Jiahe Wang, Xiang Li, Xinmin Zhou, Gang ChenEffects of saffron supplementation on improving sleep quality: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trialsSleep Med.(2022 Apr)
  17. ^Munirah MP, Norhayati MN, Noraini MCrocus Sativus for Insomnia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Int J Environ Res Public Health.(2022-Sep-16)
  18. ^Masaki M, Aritake K, Tanaka H, Shoyama Y, Huang ZL, Urade YCrocin promotes non-rapid eye movement sleep in mice.Mol Nutr Food Res.(2012-Feb)
  19. ^Hosseinzadeh H, Noraei NBAnxiolytic and hypnotic effect of Crocus sativus aqueous extract and its constituents, crocin and safranal, in mice.Phytother Res.(2009-Jun)
  20. ^Blasco-Fontecilla H, Moyano-Ramírez E, Méndez-González O, Rodrigo-Yanguas M, Martin-Moratinos M, Bella-Fernández MEffectivity of Saffron Extract (Saffr'Activ) on Treatment for Children and Adolescents with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A Clinical Effectivity Study.Nutrients.(2022-Sep-28)
  21. ^Sara Baziar, Ali Aqamolaei, Ebrahim Khadem, Seyyed Hosein Mortazavi, Sina Naderi, Erfan Sahebolzamani, Amirhosein Mortezaei, Shakiba Jalilevand, Mohammad-Reza Mohammadi, Mahsa Shahmirzadi, Shahin AkhondzadehCrocus sativus L. Versus Methylphenidate in Treatment of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Randomized, Double-Blind Pilot StudyJ Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol.(2019 Apr)
  22. ^Khaksarian M, Ahangari N, Masjedi-Arani A Mirr I , Jafari H , Kordian S, Nooripour R, Hassanvandi SA comparison of methylphenidate (MPH) and combined methylphenidate with Crocus sativus (saffron) in the treatment of children and adolescents with ADHD: A randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, clinical trialIran J Psychiatry Behav Sci.(2021 May)
  23. ^Pazoki B, Zandi N, Assaf Z, Moghaddam H, Zeinoddini A, Mohammadi M, Akhondzadeh SEfficacy and safety of saffron as adjunctive therapy in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialAdv Integr Med.(2022 Mar)
  24. ^Mohammad Zamani, Mahtab Zarei, Mahlagha Nikbaf-Shandiz, Fatemeh Gholami, Amir Mehdi Hosseini, Maryam Nadery, Farideh Shiraseb, Omid AsbaghiThe effects of saffron supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors in adults: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysisFront Nutr.(2022 Dec 8)
  25. ^Maleki-Saghooni N, Mirzaeii K, Hosseinzadeh H, Sadeghi R, Irani MA systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials on saffron () effectiveness and safety on erectile dysfunction and semen parameters.Avicenna J Phytomed.(2018)
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  28. ^Akhondzadeh S, Sabet MS, Harirchian MH, Togha M, Cheraghmakani H, Razeghi S, Hejazi SSh, Yousefi MH, Alimardani R, Jamshidi A, Zare F, Moradi ASaffron in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a 16-week, randomized and placebo-controlled trialJ Clin Pharm Ther.(2010 Oct)
  29. ^Geishauser T, Leslie K, Duffield T, Sandals D, Edge VThe association between selected metabolic parameters and left abomasal displacement in dairy cows.Zentralbl Veterinarmed A.(1998-Oct)
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  31. ^Avgerinos KI, Vrysis C, Chaitidis N, Kolotsiou K, Myserlis PG, Kapogiannis DEffects of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on cognitive function. A systematic review of RCTs.Neurol Sci.(2020-Oct)
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  33. ^Butnariu M, Quispe C, Herrera-Bravo J, Sharifi-Rad J, Singh L, Aborehab NM, Bouyahya A, Venditti A, Sen S, Acharya K, Bashiry M, Ezzat SM, Setzer WN, Martorell M, Mileski KS, Bagiu IC, Docea AO, Calina D, Cho WCThe Pharmacological Activities of L.: A Review Based on the Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities of its Phytoconstituents.Oxid Med Cell Longev.(2022)
Examine Database References
  1. Insomnia Signs and Symptoms - Adrian L Lopresti, Stephen J Smith, Alexandra P Metse, Peter D DrummondEffects of saffron on sleep quality in healthy adults with self-reported poor sleep: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialJ Clin Sleep Med.(2020 Jun 15)
  2. Anxiety Symptoms - Amir Ghaderi, Omid Asbaghi, Željko Reiner, Fariba Kolahdooz, Elaheh Amirani, Hamed Mirzaei, Hamid Reza Banafshe, Parisa Maleki Dana, Zatollah AsemiThe effects of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on mental health parameters and C-reactive protein: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trialsComplement Ther Med.(2020 Jan)
  3. Anxiety Symptoms - Shahdadi H, Balouchi A, Dehghanmehr S Effect of saffron oral capsule on anxiety and quality of sleep of diabetic patients in a tertiary healthcare facility in southeastern Iran: A quasi-experimental studyTrop J Pharm Res.()
  4. Anxiety Symptoms - Graham Kell, Amanda Rao, Gavin Beccaria, Paul Clayton, Antonio Manuel Inarejos-García, Marin Prodanovaffron ® a novel saffron extract (Crocus sativus L.) improves mood in healthy adults over 4 weeks in a double-blind, parallel, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trialComplement Ther Med.(2017 Aug)
  5. Lactate Dehydrogenase - Ghanbari-Niaki A, et alEffect of Crocus Sativus Linnaeus (saffron) supplementations combined with circuit resistance training on total creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase MB levels in young untrained menScience & Sports.()
  6. Muscle Soreness - Meamarbashi A, Rajabi APreventive effects of 10-day supplementation with saffron and indomethacin on the delayed-onset muscle sorenessClin J Sport Med.(2015 Mar)
  7. Blood Pressure - Mostafa Asadollahi, Parisa Nikdokht, Boshra Hatef, Seyed Shahabeddin Sadr, Hedayat Sahraei, Farhad Assarzadegan, Gila Pirzad JahromiProtective properties of the aqueous extract of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in ischemic stroke, randomized clinical trialJ Ethnopharmacol.(2019 Jun 28)
  8. Creatinine - Kianbakht S, Ghazavi AImmunomodulatory effects of saffron: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trialPhytother Res.(2011 Dec)
  9. TNF-Alpha - Hajieh Shahbazian, Armaghan Moravej Aleali, Reza Amani, Foroogh Namjooyan, Bahman Cheraghian, Seyed Mahmoud Latifi, Sara Bahrainian, Ataallah GhadiriEffects of saffron on homocysteine, and antioxidant and inflammatory biomarkers levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized double-blind clinical trialAvicenna J Phytomed.(Sep-Oct 2019)
  10. Triglycerides - Nasim Abedimanesh, S Zahra Bathaie, Saeed Abedimanesh, Behrooz Motlagh, Ahmad Separham, Alireza OstadrahimiSaffron and crocin improved appetite, dietary intakes and body composition in patients with coronary artery diseaseJ Cardiovasc Thorac Res.(2017)
  11. Triglycerides - Milajerdi A, Jazayeri S, Hashemzadeh N, Shirzadi E, Derakhshan Z, Djazayeri A, Akhondzadeh SThe effect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) hydroalcoholic extract on metabolic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A triple-blinded randomized clinical trialJ Res Med Sci.(2018 Feb 20)
  12. Weight - Gout B, Bourges C, Paineau-Dubreuil SSatiereal, a Crocus sativus L extract, reduces snacking and increases satiety in a randomized placebo-controlled study of mildly overweight, healthy womenNutr Res.(2010 May)
  13. Visual acuity (VA) - Dario Marangoni, Benedetto Falsini, Marco Piccardi, Lucia Ambrosio, Angelo Maria Minnella, Maria Cristina Savastano, Silvia Bisti, Rita Maccarone, Antonello Fadda, Enrica Mello, Paola Concolino, Ettore CapoluongoFunctional effect of Saffron supplementation and risk genotypes in early age-related macular degeneration: a preliminary reportJ Transl Med.(2013 Sep 25)
  14. Visual acuity (VA) - Geoffrey K Broadhead, John R Grigg, Peter McCluskey, Thomas Hong, Timothy E Schlub, Andrew A ChangSaffron therapy for the treatment of mild/moderate age-related macular degeneration: a randomised clinical trialGraefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol.(2019 Jan)
  15. Retinal Function - Alireza Lashay, Gholamreza Sadough, Elham Ashrafi, Mohammadreza Lashay, Morteza Movassat, Shahin AkhondzadehShort-term Outcomes of Saffron Supplementation in Patients with Age-related Macular Degeneration: A Double-blind, Placebo-controlled, Randomized TrialMed Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol.(Spring 2016)
  16. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Jamal Rahmani, Nicla Manzari, Jacqueline Thompson, Cain C T Clark, Gemma Villanueva, Hamed Kord Varkaneh, Parvin MirmiranThe effect of saffron on weight and lipid profile: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and dose-response of randomized clinical trialsPhytother Res.(2019 Sep)
  17. Depression Symptoms - Omid Asbaghi, Sepideh Soltani, Noushin Norouzi, Alireza Milajerdi, Saeed Choobkar, Zatollah AsemiThe effect of saffron supplementation on blood glucose and lipid profile: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trialsComplement Ther Med.(2019 Dec)
  18. LDL Oxidation - S K Verma, A BordiaAntioxidant property of Saffron in manIndian J Med Sci.(1998 May)
  19. Anxiety Symptoms - A Ghajar, S M Neishabouri, N Velayati, L Jahangard, N Matinnia, M Haghighi, A Ghaleiha, M Afarideh, S Salimi, A Meysamie, S AkhondzadehCrocus sativus L. versus Citalopram in the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder with Anxious Distress: A Double-Blind, Controlled Clinical TrialPharmacopsychiatry.(2017 Jul)
  20. Anxiety Symptoms - Wolfgang Marx, Melissa Lane, Tetyana Rocks, Anu Ruusunen, Amy Loughman, Adrian Lopresti, Skye Marshall, Michael Berk, Felice Jacka, Olivia M DeanEffect of saffron supplementation on symptoms of depression and anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysisNutr Rev.(2019 May 28)
  21. Anxiety Symptoms - Alireza Milajerdi, Shima Jazayeri, Elham Shirzadi, Najmeh Hashemzadeh, Atieh Azizgol, Abolghassem Djazayery, Ahmad Esmaillzadeh, Shahin AkhondzadehThe effects of alcoholic extract of saffron (Crocus satious L.) on mild to moderate comorbid depression-anxiety, sleep quality, and life satisfaction in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled clinical trialComplement Ther Med.(2018 Dec)
  22. Anxiety Symptoms - Ehsan Moazen-Zadeh, Seyed Hesameddin Abbasi, Hamideh Safi-Aghdam, Nazila Shahmansouri, Akram Arjmandi-Beglar, Azita Hajhosseinn Talasaz, Abbas Salehiomran, Saeedeh Forghani, Shahin AkhondzadehEffects of Saffron on Cognition, Anxiety, and Depression in Patients Undergoing Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled TrialJ Altern Complement Med.(2018 Apr)
  23. Anxiety Symptoms - Adrian L Lopresti, Peter D Drummond, Antonio M Inarejos-García, Marin Prodanovaffron ®, a standardised extract from saffron (Crocus sativus L.) for the treatment of youth anxiety and depressive symptoms: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled studyJ Affect Disord.(2018 May)
  24. Anxiety Symptoms - Mohsen Mazidi, Maryam Shemshian, Seyed Hadi Mousavi, Abdolreza Norouzy, Tayebe Kermani, Toktam Moghiman, Akram Sadeghi, Naghme Mokhber, Majid Ghayour-Mobarhan, Gordon A A FernsA double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in the treatment of anxiety and depressionJ Complement Integr Med.(2016 Jun 1)
  25. Weight - Shahin Akhondzadeh, Seyed-Ali Mostafavi, Seyed Ali Keshavarz, Mohammad Reza Mohammadi, Saeed Hosseini, Mohammad Reza EshraghianA placebo controlled randomized clinical trial of Crocus sativus L. (saffron) on depression and food craving among overweight women with mild to moderate depressionJ Clin Pharm Ther.(2020 Feb)
  26. Sexual Function - Kashani L, Raisi F, Saroukhani S, Sohrabi H, Modabbernia A, Nasehi AA, Jamshidi A, Ashrafi M, Mansouri P, Ghaeli P, Akhondzadeh SSaffron for treatment of fluoxetine-induced sexual dysfunction in women: randomized double-blind placebo-controlled studyHum Psychopharmacol.(2013 Jan)
  27. Depression Symptoms - Mohammad Ahmadpanah, Fatemeh Ramezanshams, Ali Ghaleiha, Shahin Akhondzadeh, Dena Sadeghi Bahmani, Serge BrandCrocus Sativus L. (saffron) versus sertraline on symptoms of depression among older people with major depressive disorders-a double-blind, randomized intervention studyPsychiatry Res.(2019 Dec)
  28. Depression Symptoms - Gholamali Jelodar, Zahra Javid, Ali Sahraian, Sina JelodarSaffron improved depression and reduced homocysteine level in patients with major depression: A Randomized, double-blind studyAvicenna J Phytomed.(Jan-Feb 2018)
  29. Depression Symptoms - Moshiri E, Basti AA, Noorbala AA, Jamshidi AH, Hesameddin Abbasi S, Akhondzadeh SCrocus sativus L. (petal) in the treatment of mild-to-moderate depression: a double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trialPhytomedicine.(2006 Nov)
  30. Depression Symptoms - Nazila Shahmansouri, Mehdi Farokhnia, Seyed-Hesammeddin Abbasi, Seyed Ebrahim Kassaian, Ahmad-Ali Noorbala Tafti, Amirhossein Gougol, Habibeh Yekehtaz, Saeedeh Forghani, Mehran Mahmoodian, Sepideh Saroukhani, Akram Arjmandi-Beglar, Shahin AkhondzadehA randomized, double-blind, clinical trial comparing the efficacy and safety of Crocus sativus L. with fluoxetine for improving mild to moderate depression in post percutaneous coronary intervention patientsJ Affect Disord.(2014 Feb)
  31. Depression Symptoms - Akhondzadeh B, Ghoreishi S, Noorbala A, Akhondzadeh S, Rezazadeh SPetal and Stigma of Crocus sativus L. in the Treatment of Depression: A Pilot Double - blind Randomized Trial J Med Plants.()
  32. Depression Symptoms - Akhondzadeh Basti A, Moshiri E, Noorbala AA, Jamshidi AH, Abbasi SH, Akhondzadeh SComparison of petal of Crocus sativus L. and fluoxetine in the treatment of depressed outpatients: a pilot double-blind randomized trialProg Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry.(2007 Mar 30)
  33. Depression Symptoms - Ladan Kashani, Sophia Esalatmanesh, Farzaneh Eftekhari, Samrand Salimi, Tahereh Foroughifar, Farnaz Etesam, Hamideh Safiaghdam, Ehsan Moazen-Zadeh, Shahin AkhondzadehEfficacy of Crocus sativus (saffron) in treatment of major depressive disorder associated with post-menopausal hot flashes: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trialArch Gynecol Obstet.(2018 Mar)
  34. Depression Symptoms - Adrian L Lopresti, Stephen J Smith, Sean D Hood, Peter D DrummondEfficacy of a standardised saffron extract (affron®) as an add-on to antidepressant medication for the treatment of persistent depressive symptoms in adults: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled studyJ Psychopharmacol.(2019 Nov)
  35. Depression Symptoms - A A Noorbala, S Akhondzadeh, N Tahmacebi-Pour, A H JamshidiHydro-alcoholic extract of Crocus sativus L. versus fluoxetine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a double-blind, randomized pilot trialJ Ethnopharmacol.(2005 Feb 28)
  36. Depression Symptoms - Akhondzadeh S, Fallah-Pour H, Afkham K, Jamshidi AH, Khalighi-Cigaroudi FComparison of Crocus sativus L. and imipramine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a pilot double-blind randomized trial ISRCTN45683816BMC Complement Altern Med.(2004 Sep 2)
  37. Depression Symptoms - Akhondzadeh S, Tahmacebi-Pour N, Noorbala AA, Amini H, Fallah-Pour H, Jamshidi AH, Khani MCrocus sativus L. in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trialPhytother Res.(2005 Feb)
  38. Depression Symptoms - Ali Sahraian, Sina Jelodar, Zahra Javid, Arash Mowla, Laaya AhmadzadehStudy the effects of saffron on depression and lipid profiles: A double blind comparative studyAsian J Psychiatr.(2016 Aug)
  39. Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms - Akhondzadeh S, Sabet MS, Harirchian MH, Togha M, Cheraghmakani H, Razeghi S, Hejazi SSh, Yousefi MH, Alimardani R, Jamshidi A, Zare F, Moradi ASaffron in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a 16-week, randomized and placebo-controlled trialJ Clin Pharm Ther.(2010 Oct)
  40. Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms - Mehdi Farokhnia, Mehdi Shafiee Sabet, Negar Iranpour, Amirhossein Gougol, Habibeh Yekehtaz, Roozbeh Alimardani, Farzaneh Farsad, Maryam Kamalipour, Shahin AkhondzadehComparing the efficacy and safety of Crocus sativus L. with memantine in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease: a double-blind randomized clinical trialHum Psychopharmacol.(2014 Jul)
  41. Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms - Akhondzadeh S, Shafiee Sabet M, Harirchian MH, Togha M, Cheraghmakani H, Razeghi S, Hejazi SS, Yousefi MH, Alimardani R, Jamshidi A, Rezazadeh SA, Yousefi A, Zare F, Moradi A, Vossoughi AA 22-week, multicenter, randomized, double-blind controlled trial of Crocus sativus in the treatment of mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's diseasePsychopharmacology (Berl).(2010 Jan)
  42. Blood glucose - Armaghan Moravej Aleali, Reza Amani, Hajieh Shahbazian, Frough Namjooyan, Seyed Mahmoud Latifi, Bahman CheraghianThe effect of hydroalcoholic Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) extract on fasting plasma glucose, HbA1c, lipid profile, liver, and renal function tests in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized double-blind clinical trialPhytother Res.(2019 Jun)
  43. Blood glucose - Paria Azimi, Reza Ghiasvand, Awat Feizi, Mitra Hariri, Behnoud AbbasiEffects of Cinnamon, Cardamom, Saffron, and Ginger Consumption on Markers of Glycemic Control, Lipid Profile, Oxidative Stress, and Inflammation in Type 2 Diabetes PatientsRev Diabet Stud.(Fall-Winter 2014)
  44. Blood glucose - Fatemeh Ebrahimi, Amirhossein Sahebkar, Naheed Aryaeian, Naseh Pahlavani, Soudabeh Fallah, Nariman Moradi, Davoud Abbasi, Agha Fatemeh HosseiniEffects Of Saffron Supplementation On Inflammation And Metabolic Responses In Type 2 Diabetic Patients: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled TrialDiabetes Metab Syndr Obes.(2019 Oct 14)
  45. sICAM-1 - Paria Azimi, Reza Ghiasvand, Awat Feizi, Javad Hosseinzadeh, Maryam Bahreynian, Mitra Hariri, Hossein Khosravi-BoroujeniEffect of cinnamon, cardamom, saffron and ginger consumption on blood pressure and a marker of endothelial function in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled clinical trialBlood Press.(2016 Jun)
  46. Urea - Milajerdi A, et alThe effect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) hydro-alcoholic extract on liver and renal functions in type 2 diabetic patients: A double-blinded randomized and placebo control trialJournal of Nutrition & Intermediary Metabolism.()
  47. Erections - Hossein Mohammadzadeh-Moghadam, Seyed Mohammad Nazari, Ali Shamsa, Mohammad Kamalinejad, Habibollah Esmaeeli, Amir Abbas Asadpour, Abdoljavad KhajaviEffects of a Topical Saffron (Crocus sativus L) Gel on Erectile Dysfunction in Diabetics: A Randomized, Parallel-Group, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled TrialJ Evid Based Complementary Altern Med.(2015 Oct)
  48. Depression Symptoms - Modabbernia A, Sohrabi H, Nasehi AA, Raisi F, Saroukhani S, Jamshidi A, Tabrizi M, Ashrafi M, Akhondzadeh SEffect of saffron on fluoxetine-induced sexual impairment in men: randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trialPsychopharmacology (Berl).(2012 Oct)
  49. Erections - Ali Shamsa, Hossein Hosseinzadeh, Mahmood Molaei, Mohammad Taghi Shakeri, Omid RajabiEvaluation of Crocus sativus L. (saffron) on male erectile dysfunction: a pilot studyPhytomedicine.(2009 Aug)
  50. Hemoglobin - Modaghegh MH, Shahabian M, Esmaeili HA, Rajbai O, Hosseinzadeh HSafety evaluation of saffron (Crocus sativus) tablets in healthy volunteersPhytomedicine.(2008 Dec)
  51. Blood Clotting - Hossein Ayatollahi, Atefeh Ordoei Javan, Mohammad Khajedaluee, Masood Shahroodian, Hossein HosseinzadehEffect of Crocus sativus L. (saffron) on coagulation and anticoagulation systems in healthy volunteersPhytother Res.(2014 Apr)
  52. Vaginal Delivery Rate - Roghaieh Sadi, Sakineh Mohammad-Alizadeh-Charandabi, Mojgan Mirghafourvand, Yousef Javadzadeh, Afkham Ahmadi-BonabiEffect of Saffron (Fan Hong Hua) On the Readiness of The Uterine Cervix In Term Pregnancy: A Placebo-Controlled Randomized TrialIran Red Crescent Med J.(2016 Jun 20)
  53. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Karimi-Nazari E, et alEffect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on lipid profile, glycemic indices and antioxidant status among overweight/obese prediabetic individuals: A double-blinded, randomized controlled trialClin Nutr ESPEN.()
  54. Sperm Count - Elham Karimi-Nazari, Azadeh Nadjarzadeh, Roghayyeh Masoumi, Ameneh Marzban, Seyed Ahmad Mohajeri, Nahid Ramezani-Jolfaie, Amin Salehi-AbargoueiEffect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on lipid profile, glycemic indices and antioxidant status among overweight/obese prediabetic individuals: A double-blinded, randomized controlled trialClin Nutr ESPEN.(2019 Dec)
  55. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Babak Roshanravan, Saeed Samarghandian, Milad Ashrafizadeh, Alireza Amirabadizadeh, Farhad Saeedi, Tahereh FarkhondehMetabolic Impact of Saffron and Crocin: An Updated Systematic and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Clinical TrialsArch Physiol Biochem.(2020 Feb 4)
  56. Intraocular Pressure - Fernando Cardona, Francisco J Tinahones, Eduardo Collantes, Eduardo Garcia-Fuentes, Alejandro Escudero, Federico SoriguerResponse to a urate-lowering diet according to polymorphisms in the apolipoprotein AI-CIII-AIV clusterJ Rheumatol.(2005 May)
  57. Serum T3 - Bentolhoda Mousavi, Seyedeh Zahra Bathaie, Farbod Fadai, Zabihollah Ashtari, Neda Ali Beigi, Sara Farhang, Sara Hashempour, Nasim Shahhamzei, Hamid HeidarzadehSafety evaluation of saffron stigma (Crocus sativus L.) aqueous extract and crocin in patients with schizophreniaAvicenna J Phytomed.(Sep-Oct 2015)
  58. Anxiety Symptoms - Jafarnia N, et alEffect of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) as an Add-On Therapy to Sertraline in Mild to Moderate Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Double Blind Randomized Controlled TrialArch Neurosci.()
  59. Depression Symptoms - Sue Gessler, Michael King, Alessandra Lemma, Julie Barber, Louise Jones, Susan Dunning, Val Madden, Stephen Pilling, Rachael Hunter, Peter Fonagy, Karen Summerville, Nicola MacDonald, Adeola Olaitan, Anne LanceleyStepped approach to improving sexual function after gynaecological cancer: the SAFFRON feasibility RCTHealth Technol Assess.(2019 Feb)
  60. TNF-Alpha - Zahra Hamidi, Naheed Aryaeian, Jamileh Abolghasemi, Fatemeh Shirani, Mahsa Hadidi, Soudabeh Fallah, Nariman MoradiThe effect of saffron supplement on clinical outcomes and metabolic profiles in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialPhytother Res.(2020 Jul)
  61. Seminal Motility - Mohammad Heidary, Sepideh Vahhabi, Jahanbakhsh Reza Nejadi, Bahram Delfan, Mehdi Birjandi, Hossein Kaviani, Soudabeh GivradEffect of saffron on semen parameters of infertile menUrol J.(Fall 2008)
  62. Seminal Motility - Safarinejad MR, Shafiei N, Safarinejad SA prospective double-blind randomized placebo-controlled study of the effect of saffron (Crocus sativus Linn.) on semen parameters and seminal plasma antioxidant capacity in infertile men with idiopathic oligoasthenoteratozoospermiaPhytother Res.(2011 Apr)
  63. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Seyed Ahmad Hosseini, Marzie Zilaee, Maryam Haddadzadeh Shoushtari, Mohammad Ghasemi DehcheshmehAn evaluation of the effect of saffron supplementation on the antibody titer to heat-shock protein (HSP) 70, hsCRP and spirometry test in patients with mild and moderate persistent allergic asthma: A triple-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trialRespir Med.(2018 Dec)
  64. Blood Pressure - Marzie Zilaee, Seyed Ahmad Hosseini, Sima Jafarirad, Farhad Abolnezhadian, Bahman Cheraghian, Foroogh Namjoyan, Ataollah GhadiriAn evaluation of the effects of saffron supplementation on the asthma clinical symptoms and asthma severity in patients with mild and moderate persistent allergic asthma: a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trialRespir Res.(2019 Feb 22)
  65. Hip Circumference - Soukhtanloo M, et alEffect of saffron on serum leptin levels in patients with metabolic syndrome, a double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial studyProg Nutr.()
  66. Hip Circumference - Tayebe Kermani, Maedeh Zebarjadi, Hassan Mehrad-Majd, Seyed-Reza Mirhafez, Maryam Shemshian, Faezeh Ghasemi, Elham Mohammadzadeh, Seyed Hadi Mousavi, Abdolreza Norouzy, Toktam Moghiman, Akram Sadeghi, Gordon Ferns, Amir Avan, Elaheh Mahdipour, Majid Ghayour-MobarhanAnti-Inflammatory Effect of Crocus sativus on Serum Cytokine Levels in Subjects with Metabolic Syndrome: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo- Controlled TrialCurr Clin Pharmacol.(2017)
  67. General Oxidation - Tayyebeh Kermani, Seyyed Hadi Mousavi, Maryam Shemshian, Abdolreza Norouzy, Mohsen Mazidi, Atefeh Moezzi, Toktam Moghiman, Majid Ghayour-Mobarhan, Gordon A FernsSaffron supplements modulate serum pro-oxidant-antioxidant balance in patients with metabolic syndrome: A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trialAvicenna J Phytomed.(Sep-Oct 2015)
  68. Depression Symptoms - Mansoor Shakiba, Ehsan Moazen-Zadeh, Ahmad Ali Noorbala, Morteza Jafarinia, Parisa Divsalar, Ladan Kashani, Nazila Shahmansouri, Abbas Tafakhori, Hannaneh Bayat, Shahin AkhondzadehSaffron ( Crocus sativus) versus duloxetine for treatment of patients with fibromyalgia: A randomized double-blind clinical trialAvicenna J Phytomed.(Nov-Dec 2018)
  69. Short-Term Memory (Simple) - Ghodrat M, Sahraei S, Razjouyan J, Meftahi GEffects of a Saffron Alcoholic Extract on Visual ShortTerm Memory in Humans: a Psychophysical StudyNeurophysiol .()
  70. Depression Symptoms - Magda Tsolaki, Elina Karathanasi, Ioulietta Lazarou, Kostas Dovas, Eleni Verykouki, Anastasios Karacostas, Kostas Georgiadis, Anthoula Tsolaki, Katerina Adam, Ioannis Kompatsiaris, Zacharias SinakosEfficacy and Safety of Crocus sativus L. in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment: One Year Single-Blind Randomized, with Parallel Groups, Clinical TrialJ Alzheimers Dis.(2016 Jul 27)
  71. Estrogen - Fukui H, Toyoshima K, Komaki RPsychological and neuroendocrinological effects of odor of saffron (Crocus sativus)Phytomedicine.(2011 Jun 15)
  72. PMS Symptoms - Agha-Hosseini M, Kashani L, Aleyaseen A, Ghoreishi A, Rahmanpour H, Zarrinara AR, Akhondzadeh SCrocus sativus L. (saffron) in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome: a double-blind, randomised and placebo-controlled trialBJOG.(2008 Mar)
  73. PMS Symptoms - Beiranvanda S, et alThe effect of Crocus sativus (saffron) on the severity of premenstrual syndromeEur J Integr Med.()
  74. Blood glucose - Mansoori P, et alA Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo - controlled Study of Safety of the Adjunctive Saffron on Sexual Dysfunction Induced by a Selective Serotonin Reuptake InhibitorJ Med Plant .()
  75. Depression Symptoms - Hausenblas HA, Saha D, Dubyak PJ, Anton SDSaffron (Crocus sativus L.) and major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trialsJ Integr Med.(2013 Nov)
  76. Attention - Sara Baziar, Ali Aqamolaei, Ebrahim Khadem, Seyyed Hosein Mortazavi, Sina Naderi, Erfan Sahebolzamani, Amirhosein Mortezaei, Shakiba Jalilevand, Mohammad-Reza Mohammadi, Mahsa Shahmirzadi, Shahin AkhondzadehCrocus sativus L. Versus Methylphenidate in Treatment of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Randomized, Double-Blind Pilot StudyJ Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol.(2019 Apr)
  77. Creatinine - Fatemeh Ebrahimi, Naheed Aryaeian, Naseh Pahlavani, Davood Abbasi, Agha Fatemeh Hosseini, Soudabeh Fallah, Nariman Moradi, Iraj HeydariThe effect of saffron ( Crocus sativus L.) supplementation on blood pressure, and renal and liver function in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A double-blinded, randomized clinical trialAvicenna J Phytomed.(Jul-Aug 2019)
  78. Erections - Safarinejad MR, Shafiei N, Safarinejad SAn open label, randomized, fixed-dose, crossover study comparing efficacy and safety of sildenafil citrate and saffron (Crocus sativus Linn.) for treating erectile dysfunction in men naïve to treatmentInt J Impot Res.(2010 Jul-Aug)
  79. Visual acuity (VA) - Falsini B, Piccardi M, Minnella A, Savastano C, Capoluongo E, Fadda A, Balestrazzi E, Maccarone R, Bisti SInfluence of saffron supplementation on retinal flicker sensitivity in early age-related macular degenerationInvest Ophthalmol Vis Sci.(2010 Dec)
  80. Cancer Metastasis - Azar Hosseini, Seyed Hamed Mousavi, Anis Ghanbari, Fatemeh Homaee Shandiz, Hamid Reza Raziee, Masoud Pezeshki Rad, Seyed Hadi MousaviEffect of saffron on liver metastases in patients suffering from cancers with liver metastases: A randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialAvicenna J Phytomed.(Sep-Oct 2015)
  81. Liver Enzymes - Motahareh Hasani, Mahsa Malekahmadi, Gholamreza Rezamand, M Dulce Estêvão, Ana Beatriz Pizarro, Hafez Heydari, Wong Chun Hoong, Omar Ahnaf Arafah, Abdul Rahman Riad Barakeh, Areej Rahman, Mona Saud K Alrashidi, Ahmed Abu-ZaidEffect of saffron supplementation on liver enzymes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trialsDiabetes Metab Syndr.(2021 Oct 12)
  82. Skin Dryness - Shiva Golmohammadzadeh, Mahmoud Reza Jaafari, Hossein HosseinzadehDoes saffron have antisolar and moisturizing effects?Iran J Pharm Res.(Spring 2010)
  83. Depression Symptoms - Jamshid Tabeshpour, Farzaneh Sobhani, Seyed Alireza Sadjadi, Hossein Hosseinzadeh, Seyed Ahmad Mohajeri, Omid Rajabi, Zhila Taherzadeh, Saeid EslamiA double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of saffron stigma (Crocus sativus L.) in mothers suffering from mild-to-moderate postpartum depressionPhytomedicine.(2017 Dec 1)
  84. Depression Symptoms - L Kashani, S Eslatmanesh, N Saedi, N Niroomand, M Ebrahimi, M Hosseinian, T Foroughifar, S Salimi, S AkhondzadehComparison of Saffron versus Fluoxetine in Treatment of Mild to Moderate Postpartum Depression: A Double-Blind, Randomized Clinical TrialPharmacopsychiatry.(2017 Mar)