Fish oil Research Analysis

Frank, Kurtis; Patel, Kamal; Lopez, Gregory; Willis, Bill

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Fish oil

Fish oil is a a source of omega-3 fatty acids. It reduces triglycerides, but does not seem to affect the rate of cardiovascular events. It seems to notably reduce the symptoms of depression and improve some painful, inflammatory conditions.

Research analysis led by Gregory Lopez and reviewed by the Examine team.
Last Updated: Jul 5, 2022

Summary of Fish oil

Primary information, health benefits, side effects, usage, and other important details

What is fish oil?

Fish oil is a common term used to refer to two kinds of omega-3 fatty acids: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). These omega-3 fats are usually found in fish, animal products, and phytoplankton.

The fatty acids EPA and DHA are involved in regulating various biological processes such as the inflammatory response, various metabolic signaling pathways, and brain function.^[1] They can be synthesized in the body from alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), but in small amounts for most people.

What are fish oil’s main benefits?

Fish oil causes a potent reduction in triglyceride levels,^[2]^[3]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12] and a more modest reduction in blood pressure in hypertensives.^[4]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18] Despite this, long-term trials haven't found a reduction in the rate of cardiovascular events.^[19]

It appears to notably improve mood in people with major depression, though it's unclear if it has an effect in people with minor depression.^[20] EPA, in particular, seems to be the most effective omega-3 fatty acid for this purpose which suggests that the effects of fish oil are due to reducing neuroinflammation. Its anti-inflammatory benefits also seem to extend to reducing the symptoms of systemic lupus erythematosus.^[21]^[8]^[22]^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25] However, its benefits shouldn't be assumed to extend to inflammatory diseases in general.

What are fish oil’s main drawbacks?

Many fish oil supplements may contain harmful lipid peroxides (oxidized lipids that can damage cells), but it's unclear if this has notable consequences to health.^[26]

How does fish oil work?

Fish oil reduces fasting triglycerides by reducing the amount of triglyceride-rich VLDL production done by the liver. It also reduces post-meal triglycerides by boosting the rate at which triglyceride-rich chylomicrons are removed.^[27] Fish oil may reduce blood pressure by increasing nitric oxide availability and relaxing smooth muscle.^[28] It also has anti-inflammatory effects partially due to its ability to affect the shifting balance between inflammatory and anti-inflammatory signaling, which, in turn, affects cell membranes.^[29]

📝 Want a quick summary of fish oil’s health benefits?

We've analyzed over 100 studies to summarize the research on fish oil’s potential health benefits.

How to Take

Recommended dosage, active amounts, other details

Fish oil doses vary depending on the goal of supplementation. For general health, 250mg of combined EPA and DHA is the minimum dose and can be obtained via fish intake. The American Heart Association recommends 1g daily.

Since fish oil is a combination of two different fatty acids, these numbers reflect a combined total. Total eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) consumption should come from a mix of real food and supplements. The more EPA and DHA is provided by the diet, the less supplementation is required.

Fish oil can be taken throughout the day. To minimize the "fish burp" taste, take fish oil with meals.

Pregnant women should increase their intake of DHA by at least 200mg a day, as long as there is no risk of elevated mercury levels.

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The Human Effect Matrix summarizes human studies to tell you what effects Fish oil has on your body, how much evidence there is, and how strong these effects are.
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Grade	Level of Evidence [show legend]
	Robust research conducted with repeated double-blind clinical trials
	Multiple studies where at least two are double-blind and placebo controlled
	Single double-blind study or multiple cohort studies
	Uncontrolled or observational studies only

Outcome	Magnitude of effect ? The direction and size of the supplement's impact on each outcome. Some supplements can have an increasing effect, others have a decreasing effect, and others have no effect.	Consistency of research results ? Scientific research does not always agree. HIGH or VERY HIGH means that most of the scientific research agrees.	Notes
Triglycerides	Strong	Very High See all 46 studies	Fish oil, both EPA and DHA, are reference drugs for the purpose of reducing triglycerides with highly reliable reductions in the range of 15-30% (higher reductions seen in persons with higher baseline triglycerides)
Depression	Notable	Very High See all 29 studies	Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs (fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that experiences a reduction of depression. There is insufficient evidence to support a reduction of depressive symptoms in persons with minor depression (ie. not diagnosed major depressive disorder)
ADHD	Minor	Very High See all 10 studies	Supplemental DHA above 300mg appears to be effective in reducing ADHD symptoms in children, and a few studies have shown that EPA alone may also have a benefit.
Blood Pressure	Minor	Very High See all 8 studies	May decrease blood pressure in persons with high blood pressure, but does not appear to have efficacy in persons with normal blood pressure
High-density lipoprotein (HDL)	Minor	Very High See all 29 studies	Mixed evidence, but a possible increase in HDL-C is seen with fish oil supplementation in unhealthy persons
Inflammation	Minor	Moderate See all 17 studies	Highly mixed and unreliable influences on circulating inflammatory cytokines (although, due to immunosuppression on cellular adhesion factors, the overall effect may still be antiinflammatory)
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)	Minor	- See all 32 studies	A decrease has been noted in persons without high cholesterol in the first place, and the decreasing effect of statins appears to be augmented with fish oil. However, in persons at higher risk for cardiovascular disease due to high triglycerides and cholesterol (who more frequently use fish oil as therapy) it is possible LDL-C may actually be increased. The magnitude tends to be in the 5-10% range.
Blood glucose	-	High See all 20 studies	No significant alterations in fasting glucose are seen over time with fish oil supplementation
C-Reactive Protein (CRP)	-	Very High See all 16 studies	Although some decreases have been noted, the vast majority of the evidence suggests that there is no significant influence
HbA1c	-	Moderate See all 12 studies	Although the majority of evidence suggests absolutely no influence on HbA1c, reductions have been reported and a lone case has noted a clinically irrelevant increase of HbA1c (secondary to the increase in glucose). Practically, there is unlikely to be any large changes
Insulin Sensitivity	-	Very High See all 12 studies	No significant influence on insulin sensitivity seems to be the consensus, although there are isolated reports of both an increase and decrease (in response to a glucose tolerance test and fasting, respectively)
Total cholesterol	-	Very High See all 20 studies	Although some decreases have been noted, overall there does not appear to be a significant clinical reduction in total cholesterol like there is with triglycerides
Weight	-	High See all 16 studies	For the most part, no significant influence on body weight over time
Symptoms of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus	Notable	Very High See all 7 studies	The decrease in symptoms of lupus as assessed by SLAM-R and BILAG at times reaches up to 50% symptom reduction and tends to exceed 30%, and the first pilot studies noted remission in all subjects (although they have not been replicated since). Oddly, benefit may come from lower doses (160mg EPA and 140mg DHA) with higher doses conferring less benefit
Anxiety	Minor	Very High See all 7 studies	A decrease in anxiety has been noted in medical students
Cell Adhesion Factors	Minor	Low See all 8 studies	Appears to be able to reduce cellular adhesion factors (that draw immune cells into tissue to aid in inflammatory processes, reducing these is immunosuppressive) in elderly persons, while slightly increasing expression in youth
Cortisol	Minor	Low See all 4 studies	A possible reducing effect of fish oil supplementation on cortisol
Endothelial Function	Minor	Very High See all 4 studies	There appears to be a slight increase in vascular reactivity and blood vessel responsiveness that may be independent of both blood flow alterations and blood pressure
Infant Birth Weight	Minor	Very High See 2 studies	There appears to be an increased infant birth weight in mothers that consume fish oil (or fish weekly) relative to no fish oil intake. Although earlier studies have suggested this may due to prolonging pregnancy, a recent RCT found an increase in birth weight independent of gestational age.
Lipid Peroxidation	Minor	- See all 5 studies	Both increases and decreases in lipid peroxidation have been noted with fish oil supplementation, with the increases in peroxidation usually seen with high doses of fish oil paired with other oxidative stressors (such as marathon running)
Natural Killer Cell Activity	Minor	High See all 3 studies	Although there do not appear to be changes in the amounts of NK cells in the body following fish oil, their activity appears to be a tad reduced
Photoprotection	Minor	Very High See all 3 studies	There appears to be reduced risk of DNA damage, immunosuppression, and erythema in response to sunlight associated with fish oil consumption. Studies have only investigated higher doses (1,800mg EPA minimum) and it is unsure if these protective effects apply to lower doses
Platelet Aggregation	Minor	High See all 4 studies	Possible decreases in platelet aggregation
Symptoms of Bipolar Disorder	Minor	Very High See all 5 studies	There appears to be reduced depressive symptoms in bipolar disorder when the depression is of a large magnitude (similar to the anti-depressant effects of fish oil in general). There may not be a reduction in depressive symptoms with lower severity depression (a trend to increase has been noted) and manic symptoms do not appear to be significantly influenced.
TNF-Alpha	Minor	High See all 8 studies	May decrease TNF-a
vLDL-C	Minor	Very High See all 7 studies	May decrease vLDL cholesterol
Apolipoprotein B	-	Moderate See all 6 studies	Although at least one study has noted a decrease, usually there is no significant changes
B Cell Count	-	Very High See all 3 studies	The overall quantity of B lymphocytes does not appear to be altered with fish oil supplementation
Blood Flow	-	Moderate See all 5 studies	Although there is some counter evidence to suggest an improvement of small magnitude, most evidence suggest no significant changes in blood flow
Insulin	-	Very High See all 11 studies	No significant influence on fasting insulin levels
Insulin Secretion	-	Very High See all 5 studies	There does not appear to be an augmented insulin release from dietary carbohydrate nor an inherent insulin release from the pancreas associated with fish oil supplementation
Muscle Soreness	-	High See all 3 studies	Although one study suggests a decrease, most evidence suggest no significant influence
Natural Killer Cell Content	-	High See all 3 studies	Although one increase in NK cell content has been noted after exercise, the two studies using similar doses at rest have failed to find a significant influence on NK cell content
Postpartum Depression	-	Very High See all 6 studies	There does not appear to be any unique effect of supplemental fish oil on postpartum depression. Fish oil in postpartum and perinatal periods follows the same motifs as other depressive states, with EPA being the active molecule but likely only of benefit in major depressive disorder
Pre-Eclampsia Risk	-	Very High See 2 studies	There does not appear to be a significant protective effect against pre-eclampsia in women who supplement fish oil during pregnancy
T Cell Count	-	High See all 4 studies	Although there is some evidence to suggest an immunosuppressive effect on T cells, most evidence suggest no significant effect. When the immunosuppresion does occur, it is due to the EPA content
VO₂max	-	Very High See all 3 studies	There is no evidence to support an improvement of VO2 max when fish oil is consumed alongside an exercise routine
5-HEPE	Notable	- See study	5-HEPE is a catabolite of EPA, and its blood levels are increased following consumption of EPA in a dose-dependent manner
Aggression	Minor	Very High See 2 studies	A decrease in aggression has been noted, which is thought to be secondary to improvements in mood state and general well being
Cerebral Blood Flow	Minor	- See study	Appears to improve cerebral blood flow and volume in persons with low dietary fish intake
Cerebral Oxygenation	Minor	- See study	The increase in cerebral oxygenation appears to exist in otherwise healthy persons with low dietary fish intake, and appears to be secondary to improvements in blood flow in general
Cognitive Decline	Minor	Very High See 2 studies	High dose (900 mg) DHA appears to be somewhat beneficial in reducing the rate of cognitive decline in elderly but otherwise healthy persons, but 350 mg DHA and 600 mg EPA has been seen to have no effect in those with concurrent age-related macular degeneration.
Erythema	Minor	Very High See 2 studies	Ingestion of fish oil appears to prolong the time required for sunlight to induce reddening of the skin, and secondary to this fish oil ingestion above 1,800mg EPA is able to reduce the risk of sunburn.
Exercise-Induced Oxidation	Minor	- See study	Exercise induced oxidation has been noted to be increased in elite athletes with fish oil supplementation
Factor VII	Minor	- See study	An increase in serum Factor VII has been noted with fish oil supplementation
General Oxidation	Minor	Moderate See 2 studies	May increase general oxidation in the body, but seems unreliable in doing so
Homocysteine	Minor	Very High See 2 studies	May decrease homocysteine content
Infant Death Risk	Minor	- See study	A reduced risk of death of infants after pregnancy has been noted with maternal consumption of fish oil, but this information is preliminary and needs replication (noted offhand in one study)
Interleukin 2	Minor	Moderate See 2 studies	Mixed effects on IL-2 concentrations, with an increase noted when supplemented around exercise and no change noted at rest.
Interleukin 6	Minor	Very High See 2 studies	A decrease in circulating IL-6 has been noted with fish oil supplementation
Ketone Bodies	Minor	- See study	An increase in ketone bodies has been noted when fish oil is paired with a weight loss diet (relative to placebo)
Leukotriene B5	Minor	Very High See 2 studies	An increase in LKB5 has been noted following fish oil supplementation
Liver Fat	Minor	- See study	A possible decreasing effect of liver fat seen in persons with NAFLD
Lymphocyte Count	Minor	- See study	A decrease in lymphocytic count has been noted in obese persons
Memory	Minor	- See 2 studies	Possible improvements in memory
Nitric Oxide	Minor	- See study	An increase in exercise-induced nitric oxide production has been noted
Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1	Minor	- See study	An increase in PAI-1 is noted with fish oil supplementation
Processing Accuracy	Minor	- See study	An improvement in processing accuracy (assessed by amount of errors in a cognitive test) has been noted with fish oil in otherwise healthy adults that do not frequently consume fish products
Prostaglandin J2a	Minor	- See study	An increase in prostaglandin J2A is noted with fish oil supplementation, which is thought to mediate a variety of fish oil's effects
Reaction Time	Minor	- See study	A reduction in reaction time has been noted with fish oil supplementation in persons who consume low levels of fish in the diet
Stress	Minor	- See study	Self-reported stress in distressed women given fish oil supplementation appears to be reduced
Subjective Well-Being	Minor	Moderate See all 3 studies	An improvement in well being has been noted in nondepressed and nonelderly obese persons given fish oil supplementation to a small magnitude.
Thromboxane B2	Minor	- See study	An increase in thromboxane B2 is noted with fish oil supplementation
5-HETE	-	- See study	5-HETE is a catabolite of arachidonic acid (omega-6 fatty acids), and its serum levels do not appear to be significantly influenced by ingestion of fish oil supplementation despite an increase in EPA and DHA
Adiponectin	-	Moderate See all 3 studies	No significant influence on Adiponectin concentrations
Apolipoprotein A	-	Very High See 2 studies	No significant influence on Apolipoprotein A concentrations
Attention	-	Very High See all 3 studies	Fish oil supplementation in otherwise healthy adults has failed to significantly influence attention processing
Body Fat	-	Very High See all 4 studies	No significant influence on fat mass with routine supplemental fish oil
Cognition of Offspring	-	- See study	Despite the importance of DHA in cognition of offspring (and absolute deprivation likely to reduce cognitive development), additional supplemental fish oil does not appear to be supported for further enhancing the cognition of offspring although it is plausible
DHEA	-	- See study	No significant influence on DHEA sulfate in serum
DNA Damage	-	Very High See 2 studies	Does not appear to influence DNA damage
Exercise-Induced Immune Suppression	-	- See study	Does not appear to augment nor alleviate the immunosuppression that occurs during exercise in otherwise healthy persons
Fatigue	-	Moderate See all 3 studies	No demonstrable benefit to fatigue
Food Intake	-	Very High See 2 studies	There does not appear to be a significant influence of fish oil supplementation on food intake
Fructosamine	-	- See study	No evidence to support an increase in fructosamine, which alongside HbA1c is thought to indicate pathology from elevated blood glucose (fish oil appears to elevate glucose, but does not appear to be associated with higher diabetes risk)
Glucagon	-	- See study	No significant influence on plasma glucagon concentrations
Heart Rate	-	- See study	No significant acute effect on heart rate seen with fish oil supplementation
Interleukin 1-beta	-	Very High See 2 studies	No significant influence on circulating IL-1β concentrations
Interleukin 5	-	- See study	No significant influence on circulating IL-5 concentrations
Lean Mass	-	Very High See all 3 studies	No significant influence on lean mass associated with fish oil supplementation
Leptin	-	Very High See all 3 studies	No significant influence on Leptin in serum
Leukotriene B4	-	Very High See 2 studies	No significant influence on LKB4 concentrations
Liver Enzymes	-	- See study	No significant influence on liver enzymes noted
Muscle Damage	-	- See study	No significant influence on biomarkers of muscle damage seen with fish oil supplementation
Oxidation of LDL	-	Very High See 2 studies	No significant influence detected
Proteinuria	-	- See study	Although a trend to reduce protein losses in the urine was noted (which would be kidney protective), this was a statistically insignificant and secondary to lupus treatment
Sex Hormone Binding Globulin	-	- See study	No significant influence on SHBG levels
Symptoms of Alzheimer’s	-	- See study	Despite the benefit seen with high dose DHA in cognitive decline, there does not appear to be a proven significant protective effect in persons already with Alzheimer's
Testosterone	-	- See study	No detectable influence on testosterone levels in serum
Atrial Fibrillation	Notable	- See study	One study found a reduction in the incidence of atrial fibrillation.
Forced Expiratory Volume	Notable	- See study	One study found a reduction.
Insomnia	Notable	- See study	A notable improvement in one study on women with PMS. Needs more research.
Interleukin 10	Notable	- See study	There was less of a reduction in the omega-3 group in one study.
Migraine Frequency	Notable	- See study	One study found a reduction.
8-isoPGF2a	Minor	- See study	One study found a reduction.
Breast Tenderness	Minor	- See study	A notable improvement in one study on women with PMS. Needs more research.
Fat Oxidation	Minor	- See study	An increase in fat oxidation (percentage of energy being taken from fat tissue) has been noted with fish oil supplementation
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone	Minor	- See study	Effect occurs in normal-weight women, but not obese women.
Headaches	Minor	- See study	A notable improvement in one study on women with PMS. Needs more research.
Markers of airway inflammation	Minor	- See study	One study found a reduction.
Symptoms of Autism	Minor	- See study	One study found an improvement.
Total antioxidant capacity (TAC)	Minor	- See study	One study found an increase.
Waist circumference	Minor	Moderate See 2 studies	Mixed evidence, possibly a small effect on average.
Working Memory	Minor	- See study	One study found an increase.
Anaerobic Running Capacity	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Anger	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Body Mass Index (BMI)	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Bone Mineral Density	-	- See study	No significant influence on bone mineral density noted with fish oil supplementation
C-Peptide	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Cognition	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Endometriosis-associated pelvic pain	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Fasting Glucose	-	Moderate See 2 studies	Mixed evidence, but more likely no effect.
Glycemic Control	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Hematocrit	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Hemoglobin	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Hip Circumference	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR)	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Impulsivity	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Interferon Gamma	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Interleukin 4	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Intestinal Permeability	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Kidney Function	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Menopause	-	- See study	One study found no apparent effect on hot flashes.
Metabolic Rate	-	- See study	No significant influence on metabolic rate seen with fish oil supplementation
Negative affect	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Non-HDL Cholesterol	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Offspring BMI	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Oxygenation Cost of Exercise	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
PMS	-	Low See all 3 studies	Mixed evidence. One study found a notable improvement in a wide range of symptoms with 360 mg of EPA and 240 mg of DHA daily, and the other didn't find notable differences with a similar dose. The positive study gave omega-3 for the entire first month and then for 10 days before and after menstruation in the following two months, while the negative study only gave fish oil for 10 days during each cycle. Thus, it's possible that the positive study is more reflective of higher omega-3 levels. More research is needed. A third study found a small improvement that was statistically significant with 40 mg daily for 3 months.
Power Output	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Resistin	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Sleep Duration	-	- See study	One study found no apparent effect of an algal DHA supplement on children.
Sleep Latency	-	- See study	One study found no apparent effect of an algal DHA supplement on children.
Sleep Quality	-	High See all 3 studies	One study found a considerable improvement in people with major depression, but two studies found no apparent effect in people who weren't depressed. Much more research is needed, but it's plausible that omega-3 can improve sleep quality insofar as it improves depression.
Sprint Performance	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Waist-Hip Ratio	-	- See study	No effect detected in one study.
Wakefulness	-	- See study	One study found no apparent effect of an algal DHA supplement on children.

Studies Excluded from Consideration

Confounded with other fatty acids^[30]
Paper unavailable online^[31]

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Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Fish oil

When should I take Vitamin D?

Vitamin D can be taken any time. As it is fat soluble, likely best to take it with a meal.

Read full answer to "When should I take Vitamin D?"

Fish oil incorporation: where do other fats fit in?

When you buy and take a fish oil supplement, the story doesn’t end there. It still needs to be incorporated into cell membranes. This study looked at how other fats may impact that process.

Read full answer to "Fish oil incorporation: where do other fats fit in?"

5 nutrients that could lift your mood

Many foods can temporarily boost your mood simply because they’re delicious. But healthy foods also contain certain nutrients that may have a more direct and lasting effect on your well-being.

Read full answer to "5 nutrients that could lift your mood"

Does fish oil actually help heart health?

The sheer number of fish oil studies makes it hard to tell if supplementation helps heart health. A recent meta-analysis looked at only the largest randomized trials, and found no benefit.

Read full answer to "Does fish oil actually help heart health?"

Things to Note

Is a Form Of

Primary Function:

Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory

Other Functions:

Also Known As

Eicosapentaenoic Acid, EPA, Docosahexaenoic Acid, DHA, Omega-3 fatty acids, Omega-3, Omega 3, N-3 Fatty Acids

Do Not Confuse With

Alpha-Linolenic Acid (the plant-based omega-3)

Goes Well With

Vitamin E, Milk Thistle because they are anti-lipid peroxidation agents
Curcumin for breast cancer risk-reduction
Fucoxanthin for increasing fucoxanthin's effects
Fenugreek Oil, for reducing after-meal glucose spikes
Green Tea Catechins for increasing GTC bioavaliablity

Caution Notice

Fish oil can oxidize if left out in the sun or in heat. Though generally not harmful, it is prudent to refrigerate fish oil.
Fish oil can reduce blood clotting and should be supplemented with caution if blood-thinning medications, asprin, warfarin or clopidogrel are already present in the body.

Though fish oil is not a stimulant, it increases brain activity, so a stimulatory effect may be felt after supplementation
Most of fish oil's beneficial effects happen over a period of days and weeks, rather than immediately
Post-supplementation "fish burps" can be avoided by consuming fish oil with food, or freezing the capsules before supplementation

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Fish oil

Fish oil is a a source of omega-3 fatty acids. It reduces triglycerides, but does not seem to affect the rate of cardiovascular events. It seems to notably reduce the symptoms of depression and improve some painful, inflammatory conditions.

Summary of Fish oil

Primary information, health benefits, side effects, usage, and other important details

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How to Take

Recommended dosage, active amounts, other details

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Human Effect Matrix

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Studies Excluded from Consideration

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Study Deep Dives

Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Fish oil

Things to Note

Is a Form Of

Primary Function:

Other Functions:

Also Known As

Do Not Confuse With

Goes Well With

Caution Notice

📝 Want a quick summary of fish oil’s health benefits?

Research Breakdown on Fish oil

1.1Fish oil contents and sources

1.2Structures and Properties

1.3Supplemental sources of Omega-3 fatty acids

1.4DHA deficiency and Regulation of DHA

2.1Bioactivation of Eicosanoids

2.2Resolvins

2.3Protectins

2.4Prostaglandins

3.1PPAR Receptors

3.2AMPK

3.3FFA receptors

4.1Absorption

4.2Bodily stores

5.1DHA concentrations

5.2Aggression

5.3Memory and Learning

5.4Depression

5.5Bipolar Disorder

5.6Stress

5.7Glucose Metabolism

5.8Blood Flow and Oxygenation

5.9Stroke

5.10Dementia and Alzheimer's

5.11Pain

6.1Mechanisms

6.2Triglycerides

6.3Lipoproteins

6.4Cardiovascular Disease Risk

6.5Endothelial Interactions

7.1Blood Sugar and Glycemic Control

7.2Insulin Sensitivity

7.3Diabetes Risk

8.1Mechanisms

8.2Adipokines

8.3Interactions with Carbohydrates

8.4Weight Gain

8.5Skeletal Muscle Interactions

8.6Interventions

9.1Mechanisms

9.2Muscle Bioenergetics

9.3Healing rate and Catabolism

9.4Health Effects

10.1Circulating Cytokines

10.2Chemotaxis and Cell Adhesion Factors

10.3Neutrophils

10.4Monocytes and Macrophages

10.5Natural Killer Cells

10.6B-Cells

10.7T Cells

11.1Lipid Peroxidation