Creatine

Last Updated: February 26, 2024

Creatine is among the most well-studied and effective supplements for improving exercise performance. It does this mainly by increasing energy availability during high-intensity activity. Creatine may also provide cognitive and mental health benefits in some contexts.

Creatine is most often used for

What is creatine?

Creatine (which comes from the Greek word “kreas”, meaning “meat”) is a molecule that is produced in the body from the amino acids arginine, glycine, and methionine. It's primarily made in the liver and (to a lesser extent) in the kidneys and pancreas.[1][2] Creatine stores high-energy phosphate groups in the form of phosphocreatine. These phosphate groups are donated to ADP to regenerate it to ATP, the primary energy carrier in the body.[3] Creatine’s role in energy production is particularly relevant under conditions of high energy demand, such as intense physical or mental activity.

Creatine can be found in some animal-based foods and is most prevalent in meat and fish.[4][5] Athletes commonly take it as a powder or in capsules.

What are creatine’s main benefits?

The primary benefit of creatine is an improvement in strength and power output during resistance exercise. Creatine is well-researched for this purpose, and its effects are quite notable for a supplement, both in the general population,[6][7][8][9] and specifically in older adults.[10][11][12] When used in conjunction with resistance exercise, creatine may modestly increase lean mass.[7][12][11][13] In trained athletes, creatine has been reported to reduce body fat and improve some measures of anaerobic exercise performance, strength, and power output.[14][15] Creatine has also been tested for effects on anaerobic running capacity in many studies, the results of which are rather mixed but generally suggest a small improvement in performance.[16][17][18][19]

Although creatine has been researched far less for cognitive performance and mental health than for physical performance, it may have benefits in some contexts. Creatine appears to reduce mental fatigue in some scenarios, particularly highly stressful ones involving sleep deprivation or exercise to exhaustion.[20][21] Creatine may also improve some aspects of memory, particularly for people with below-average creatine levels, such as vegetarians and older adults.[22][23] There is also some preliminary evidence to suggest that creatine may reduce symptoms of depression in individuals with major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder.[24] That said, more research is needed in these areas and on other cognitive measures before creatine can be said to be effective for cognitive performance or mental health.

What are creatine’s main drawbacks?

Supplementation with creatine typically results in weight gain, partly due to an increase in total body water.[25] The range of weight gain after a creatine loading phase tends to fall between 0.9 and 1.8 kg (1.98–3.96 lbs).[26][27] This may be of particular concern to individuals competing in weight-sensitive sports.

Diarrhea can occur when too much creatine is taken at one time,[28] in which case the doses should be spread out throughout the day and taken with meals.

Supplementation with creatine has been reported to negatively affect aerobic capacity to a small degree.[29] It has been speculated that this potential detrimental effect may be related to increases in total body water and body weight following supplementation with creatine.[30]

How does creatine work?

Creatine works mainly through its effects on energy metabolism. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a molecule that carries energy within cells and is the main fuel source for high-intensity exercise. When cells use ATP for energy, this molecule is converted into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine monophosphate (AMP). Creatine exists in cells in the form of creatine phosphate (or phosphocreatine), which donates a high-energy phosphate group to ADP, thus turning this molecule back into ATP.

By increasing the overall pool of cellular phosphocreatine, supplementation with creatine can accelerate the recycling of ADP into ATP, thereby quickly replenishing cellular energy stores. This increased availability of energy can promote improvements in strength and power output.[31] The pro-energetic properties of creatine don’t just affect skeletal muscle, but nearly all body systems, including the central nervous system (which comprises the brain and spinal cord).[32]

What else is Creatine known as?
Note that Creatine is also known as:
  • creatine monohydrate
  • creatine 2-oxopropanoate
  • a-methylguanidinoacetic acid
Creatine should not be confused with:
Dosage information

There are many different forms of creatine available on the market, but creatine monohydrate is the most extensively researched and tends to be the cheapest form. Another option is micronized creatine monohydrate, which dissolves more easily in water.

In most studies, supplementation involved an initial loading protocol of around 0.3 grams per kilogram of bodyweight per day (typically divided into four equal doses throughout the day) for 5–7 days followed by a daily maintenance dose of at least 0.03 g/kg of bodyweight. For a 180 lb (82 kg) person, this translates to a loading dose of 25 g/day and a maintenance dose of at least 2.5 g/day. The “alternative” to creatine loading involves simply taking a smaller dose (usually 3–5 g) of creatine every day.

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21 days ago

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We adjusted the wording and content of the overview, dosage information, and the FAQ about reducing exercise-induced muscle damage. None of these changes affect the take-home concepts on the page.

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References
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  122. ^Jagim AR, Oliver JM, Sanchez A, Galvan E, Fluckey J, Riechman S, Greenwood M, Kelly K, Meininger C, Rasmussen C, Kreider RBA buffered form of creatine does not promote greater changes in muscle creatine content, body composition, or training adaptations than creatine monohydrate.J Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2012-Sep-13)
  123. ^Spillane M, Schoch R, Cooke M, Harvey T, Greenwood M, Kreider R, Willoughby DSThe effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation combined with heavy resistance training on body composition, muscle performance, and serum and muscle creatine levelsJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2009 Feb 19)
  124. ^Selsby JT, DiSilvestro RA, Devor STMg2+-creatine chelate and a low-dose creatine supplementation regimen improve exercise performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2004 May)
  125. ^Galvan E, Walker DK, Simbo SY, Dalton R, Levers K, O'Connor A, Goodenough C, Barringer ND, Greenwood M, Rasmussen C, Smith SB, Riechman SE, Fluckey JD, Murano PS, Earnest CP, Kreider RBAcute and chronic safety and efficacy of dose dependent creatine nitrate supplementation and exercise performanceJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2016 Mar 31)
  126. ^Casey A, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Howell S, Hultman E, Greenhaff PLCreatine ingestion favorably affects performance and muscle metabolism during maximal exercise in humans.Am J Physiol.(1996-Jul)
  127. ^Febbraio MA, Flanagan TR, Snow RJ, Zhao S, Carey MFEffect of creatine supplementation on intramuscular TCr, metabolism and performance during intermittent, supramaximal exercise in humans.Acta Physiol Scand.(1995-Dec)
  128. ^Robinson TM, Sewell DA, Hultman E, Greenhaff PLRole of submaximal exercise in promoting creatine and glycogen accumulation in human skeletal muscleJ Appl Physiol (1985).(1999 Aug)
  129. ^Syrotuik DG, Bell GJAcute creatine monohydrate supplementation: a descriptive physiological profile of responders vs. nonrespondersJ Strength Cond Res.(2004 Aug)
  130. ^Hadjicharalambous M, Kilduff LP, Pitsiladis YPBrain serotonin and dopamine modulators, perceptual responses and endurance performance during exercise in the heat following creatine supplementationJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2008 Sep 30)
  131. ^Preen D, Dawson B, Goodman C, Beilby J, Ching SCreatine supplementation: a comparison of loading and maintenance protocols on creatine uptake by human skeletal muscle.Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2003-Mar)
  132. ^Rawson ES, Persky AM, Price TB, Clarkson PMEffects of repeated creatine supplementation on muscle, plasma, and urine creatine levels.J Strength Cond Res.(2004-Feb)
  133. ^Schedel JM, Tanaka H, Kiyonaga A, Shindo M, Schutz YAcute creatine loading enhances human growth hormone secretionJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2000 Dec)
  134. ^Peyrebrune MC, Stokes K, Hall GM, Nevill MEEffect of creatine supplementation on training for competition in elite swimmersMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2005 Dec)
  135. ^Zoe Ireland, Hayley Dickinson, Rod Snow, David W WalkerMaternal creatine: does it reach the fetus and improve survival after an acute hypoxic episode in the spiny mouse (Acomys cahirinus)?Am J Obstet Gynecol.(2008 Apr)
  136. ^Adcock KH, Nedelcu J, Loenneker T, Martin E, Wallimann T, Wagner BPNeuroprotection of creatine supplementation in neonatal rats with transient cerebral hypoxia-ischemia.Dev Neurosci.(2002)
  137. ^Cannata DJ, Ireland Z, Dickinson H, Snow RJ, Russell AP, West JM, Walker DWMaternal creatine supplementation from mid-pregnancy protects the diaphragm of the newborn spiny mouse from intrapartum hypoxia-induced damage.Pediatr Res.(2010-Nov)
  138. ^Ellery SJ, Ireland Z, Kett MM, Snow R, Walker DW, Dickinson HCreatine pretreatment prevents birth asphyxia-induced injury of the newborn spiny mouse kidney.Pediatr Res.(2013-Feb)
  139. ^Ireland Z, Castillo-Melendez M, Dickinson H, Snow R, Walker DWA maternal diet supplemented with creatine from mid-pregnancy protects the newborn spiny mouse brain from birth hypoxia.Neuroscience.(2011-Oct-27)
  140. ^Dickinson H, Ireland ZJ, Larosa DA, O'Connell BA, Ellery S, Snow R, Walker DWMaternal dietary creatine supplementation does not alter the capacity for creatine synthesis in the newborn spiny mouse.Reprod Sci.(2013-Sep)
  141. ^Paul J Cribb, Alan HayesEffects of supplement timing and resistance exercise on skeletal muscle hypertrophyMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2006 Nov)
  142. ^Antonio J, Ciccone VThe effects of pre versus post workout supplementation of creatine monohydrate on body composition and strengthJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2013 Aug 6)
  143. ^Candow DG, Zello GA, Ling B, Farthing JP, Chilibeck PD, McLeod K, Harris J, Johnson SComparison of creatine supplementation before versus after supervised resistance training in healthy older adults.Res Sports Med.(2014)
  144. ^Candow DG, Vogt E, Johannsmeyer S, Forbes SC, Farthing JPStrategic creatine supplementation and resistance training in healthy older adults.Appl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2015-Jul)
  145. ^Forbes SC, Krentz JR, Candow DGTiming of creatine supplementation does not influence gains in unilateral muscle hypertrophy or strength from resistance training in young adults: a within-subject design.J Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2021-Sep)
  146. ^Dinan NE, Hagele AM, Jagim AR, Miller MG, Kerksick CMEffects of creatine monohydrate timing on resistance training adaptations and body composition after 8 weeks in male and female collegiate athletes.Front Sports Act Living.(2022)
  147. ^Yue Jiaming, Mohammad Hossein RahimiCreatine supplementation effect on recovery following exercise-induced muscle damage: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trialsJ Food Biochem.(2021 Oct)
  148. ^Bethany Northeast, Tom CliffordThe Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Markers of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Intervention TrialsInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2021 Feb 24)
  149. ^Kenji Doma, Akhilesh Kumar Ramachandran, Daniel Boullosa, Jonathan ConnorThe Paradoxical Effect of Creatine Monohydrate on Muscle Damage Markers: A Systematic Review and Meta-AnalysisSports Med.(2022 Feb 26)
  150. ^Kley RA, Tarnopolsky MA, Vorgerd MCreatine for treating muscle disorders.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.(2013-Jun-05)
  151. ^Vorgerd M, Zange J, Kley R, Grehl T, Hüsing A, Jäger M, Müller K, Schröder R, Mortier W, Fabian K, Malin JP, Luttmann AEffect of high-dose creatine therapy on symptoms of exercise intolerance in McArdle disease: double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover studyArch Neurol.(2002 Jan)
  152. ^Mo JJ, Liu LY, Peng WB, Rao J, Liu Z, Cui LLThe effectiveness of creatine treatment for Parkinson's disease: an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.BMC Neurol.(2017-Jun-02)
  153. ^Scott C Forbes, Philip D Chilibeck, Darren G CandowCreatine Supplementation During Resistance Training Does Not Lead to Greater Bone Mineral Density in Older Humans: A Brief Meta-AnalysisFront Nutr.(2018 Apr 24)
  154. ^Chilibeck PD, Candow DG, Gordon JJ, Duff WRD, Mason R, Shaw K, Taylor-Gjevre R, Nair B, Zello GAA 2-Year Randomized Controlled Trial on Creatine Supplementation during Exercise for Postmenopausal Bone Health.Med Sci Sports Exerc.(2023-May-05)
  155. ^Delpino FM, Figueiredo LMDoes creatine supplementation improve glycemic control and insulin resistance in healthy and diabetic patients? A systematic review and meta-analysis.Clin Nutr ESPEN.(2022-Feb)
Examine Database References
  1. Muscle Creatine Content - Banerjee B, Sharma U, Balasubramanian K, Kalaivani M, Kalra V, Jagannathan NREffect of creatine monohydrate in improving cellular energetics and muscle strength in ambulatory Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients: a randomized, placebo-controlled 31P MRS studyMagn Reson Imaging.(2010 Jun)
  2. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms - Tarnopolsky MA, Mahoney DJ, Vajsar J, Rodriguez C, Doherty TJ, Roy BD, Biggar DCreatine monohydrate enhances strength and body composition in Duchenne muscular dystrophyNeurology.(2004 May 25)
  3. Power Output - Kley RA, Tarnopolsky MA, Vorgerd MCreatine for treating muscle disorders.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.(2013-Jun-05)
  4. Power Output - Arciero PJ, Hannibal NS 3rd, Nindl BC, Gentile CL, Hamed J, Vukovich MDComparison of creatine ingestion and resistance training on energy expenditure and limb blood flowMetabolism.(2001 Dec)
  5. Power Output - Jonathan P Little, Scott C Forbes, Darren G Candow, Stephen M Cornish, Philip D ChilibeckCreatine, arginine alpha-ketoglutarate, amino acids, and medium-chain triglycerides and endurance and performanceInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2008 Oct)
  6. Power Output - Spillane M, Schoch R, Cooke M, Harvey T, Greenwood M, Kreider R, Willoughby DSThe effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation combined with heavy resistance training on body composition, muscle performance, and serum and muscle creatine levelsJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2009 Feb 19)
  7. Power Output - Branch JDEffect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: a meta-analysisInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2003 Jun)
  8. Power Output - Chilibeck PD, Magnus C, Anderson MEffect of in-season creatine supplementation on body composition and performance in rugby union football playersAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2007 Dec)
  9. Power Output - Sakkas GK, Mulligan K, Dasilva M, Doyle JW, Khatami H, Schleich T, Kent-Braun JA, Schambelan MCreatine fails to augment the benefits from resistance training in patients with HIV infection: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studyPLoS One.(2009)
  10. Power Output - Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Parise G, Candow DG, Mahoney D, Tarnopolsky MEffect of creatine and weight training on muscle creatine and performance in vegetariansMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2003 Nov)
  11. Power Output - Manjarrez-Montes de Oca R, Farfán-González F, Camarillo-Romero S, Tlatempa-Sotelo P, Francisco-Argüelles C, Kormanowski A, González-Gallego J, Alvear-Ordenes IEffects of creatine supplementation in taekwondo practitionersNutr Hosp.(2013 Mar-Apr)
  12. Power Output - Gotshalk LA, Kraemer WJ, Mendonca MA, Vingren JL, Kenny AM, Spiering BA, Hatfield DL, Fragala MS, Volek JSCreatine supplementation improves muscular performance in older womenEur J Appl Physiol.(2008 Jan)
  13. Power Output - Kerksick CM, Wilborn CD, Campbell WI, Harvey TM, Marcello BM, Roberts MD, Parker AG, Byars AG, Greenwood LD, Almada AL, Kreider RB, Greenwood MThe effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation with and without D-pinitol on resistance training adaptationsJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 Dec)
  14. Power Output - Kilduff LP, Pitsiladis YP, Tasker L, Attwood J, Hyslop P, Dailly A, Dickson I, Grant SEffects of creatine on body composition and strength gains after 4 weeks of resistance training in previously nonresistance-trained humansInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2003 Dec)
  15. Power Output - Dos Santos EEP, de Araújo RC, Candow DG, Forbes SC, Guijo JA, de Almeida Santana CC, Prado WLD, Botero JPEfficacy of Creatine Supplementation Combined with Resistance Training on Muscle Strength and Muscle Mass in Older Females: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Nutrients.(2021-Oct-24)
  16. Power Output - Forbes SC, Candow DG, Ostojic SM, Roberts MD, Chilibeck PDMeta-Analysis Examining the Importance of Creatine Ingestion Strategies on Lean Tissue Mass and Strength in Older Adults.Nutrients.(2021-Jun-02)
  17. Power Output - Wu Y, Hu X, Chen LEffects of Creatine in Trained Athletes: A Meta-analysis of 21 Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trials.Am J Ther.(2020)
  18. Power Output - Philip D Chilibeck, Mojtaba Kaviani, Darren G Candow, Gordon A ZelloEffect of creatine supplementation during resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscular strength in older adults: a meta-analysisOpen Access J Sports Med.(2017 Nov 2)
  19. Body Fat - Forbes SC, Candow DG, Krentz JR, Roberts MD, Young KCChanges in Fat Mass Following Creatine Supplementation and Resistance Training in Adults ≥50 Years of Age: A Meta-Analysis.J Funct Morphol Kinesiol.(2019-Aug-23)
  20. Weight - Kutz MR, Gunter MJCreatine monohydrate supplementation on body weight and percent body fatJ Strength Cond Res.(2003 Nov)
  21. Weight - Kilduff LP, Lewis S, Kingsley MI, Owen NJ, Dietzig REReliability and detecting change following short-term creatine supplementation: comparison of two-component body composition methodsJ Strength Cond Res.(2007 May)
  22. Fatigue Resistance - Eric S Rawson, Michael J Stec, Sara J Frederickson, Mary P MilesLow-dose creatine supplementation enhances fatigue resistance in the absence of weight gainNutrition.(2011 Apr)
  23. Power Output - Faager G, Söderlund K, Sköld CM, Rundgren S, Tollbäck A, Jakobsson PCreatine supplementation and physical training in patients with COPD: a double blind, placebo-controlled studyInt J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis.(2006)
  24. Power Output - Tarnopolsky M, Martin JCreatine monohydrate increases strength in patients with neuromuscular diseaseNeurology.(1999 Mar 10)
  25. Power Output - Chilibeck PD, Stride D, Farthing JP, Burke DGEffect of creatine ingestion after exercise on muscle thickness in males and femalesMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2004 Oct)
  26. Power Output - Carter JM, Bemben DA, Knehans AW, Bemben MG, Witten MSDoes nutritional supplementation influence adaptability of muscle to resistance training in men aged 48 to 72 yearsJ Geriatr Phys Ther.(2005)
  27. Power Output - Kendall KL, Smith AE, Graef JL, Fukuda DH, Moon JR, Beck TW, Cramer JT, Stout JREffects of four weeks of high-intensity interval training and creatine supplementation on critical power and anaerobic working capacity in college-aged menJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 Sep)
  28. Power Output - Hoffman J, Ratamess N, Kang J, Mangine G, Faigenbaum A, Stout JEffect of creatine and beta-alanine supplementation on performance and endocrine responses in strength/power athletesInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2006 Aug)
  29. Power Output - Bazzucchi I, Felici F, Sacchetti MEffect of short-term creatine supplementation on neuromuscular functionMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2009 Oct)
  30. Power Output - Camic CL, Hendrix CR, Housh TJ, Zuniga JM, Mielke M, Johnson GO, Schmidt RJ, Housh DJThe effects of polyethylene glycosylated creatine supplementation on muscular strength and powerJ Strength Cond Res.(2010 Dec)
  31. Power Output - Eckerson JM, Bull AA, Moore GAEffect of thirty days of creatine supplementation with phosphate salts on anaerobic working capacity and body weight in menJ Strength Cond Res.(2008 May)
  32. Power Output - Bemben MG, Witten MS, Carter JM, Eliot KA, Knehans AW, Bemben DAThe effects of supplementation with creatine and protein on muscle strength following a traditional resistance training program in middle-aged and older menJ Nutr Health Aging.(2010 Feb)
  33. Power Output - Antonio J, Ciccone VThe effects of pre versus post workout supplementation of creatine monohydrate on body composition and strengthJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2013 Aug 6)
  34. Power Output - Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, Burke DG, Mueller KD, Lewis JDEffect of different frequencies of creatine supplementation on muscle size and strength in young adultsJ Strength Cond Res.(2011 Jul)
  35. Power Output - Trent J Herda, Travis W Beck, Eric D Ryan, Abbie E Smith, Ashley A Walter, Michael J Hartman, Jeffrey R Stout, Joel T CramerEffects of creatine monohydrate and polyethylene glycosylated creatine supplementation on muscular strength, endurance, and power outputJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 May)
  36. Power Output - Volek JS, Ratamess NA, Rubin MR, Gómez AL, French DN, McGuigan MM, Scheett TP, Sharman MJ, Häkkinen K, Kraemer WJThe effects of creatine supplementation on muscular performance and body composition responses to short-term resistance training overreachingEur J Appl Physiol.(2004 May)
  37. Power Output - Rawson ES, Volek JSEffects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength and weightlifting performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2003 Nov)
  38. Power Output - Netreba I, Shenkman BS, Popov DV, Tarasova OS, Vdovina AB, Khotchenkov VP, Stekhanova TN, Vinogradova OLCreatine as a metabolic controller of skeletal muscles structure and function in strength exercises in humansRoss Fiziol Zh Im I M Sechenova.(2006 Jan)
  39. Power Output - Ferguson TB, Syrotuik DGEffects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on body composition and strength indices in experienced resistance trained womenJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 Nov)
  40. Power Output - Saremi A, Gharakhanloo R, Sharghi S, Gharaati MR, Larijani B, Omidfar KEffects of oral creatine and resistance training on serum myostatin and GASP-1Mol Cell Endocrinol.(2010 Apr 12)
  41. Power Output - Law YL, Ong WS, GillianYap TL, Lim SC, Von Chia EEffects of two and five days of creatine loading on muscular strength and anaerobic power in trained athletesJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 May)
  42. Power Output - Koçak S, Karli UEffects of high dose oral creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity of elite wrestlersJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2003 Dec)
  43. Power Output - Graef JL, Smith AE, Kendall KL, Fukuda DH, Moon JR, Beck TW, Cramer JT, Stout JRThe effects of four weeks of creatine supplementation and high-intensity interval training on cardiorespiratory fitness: a randomized controlled trialJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2009 Nov 12)
  44. Power Output - Chia-Lun Lee, Jung-Charng Lin, Ching-Feng ChengEffect of caffeine ingestion after creatine supplementation on intermittent high-intensity sprint performanceEur J Appl Physiol.(2011 Aug)
  45. Power Output - Cramer JT, Stout JR, Culbertson JY, Egan ADEffects of creatine supplementation and three days of resistance training on muscle strength, power output, and neuromuscular functionJ Strength Cond Res.(2007 Aug)
  46. Power Output - Selsby JT, DiSilvestro RA, Devor STMg2+-creatine chelate and a low-dose creatine supplementation regimen improve exercise performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2004 May)
  47. Power Output - Del Favero S, Roschel H, Artioli G, Ugrinowitsch C, Tricoli V, Costa A, Barroso R, Negrelli AL, Otaduy MC, da Costa Leite C, Lancha-Junior AH, Gualano BCreatine but not betaine supplementation increases muscle phosphorylcreatine content and strength performanceAmino Acids.(2011 Jul 9)
  48. Power Output - Volek JS, Mazzetti SA, Farquhar WB, Barnes BR, Gómez AL, Kraemer WJPhysiological responses to short-term exercise in the heat after creatine loadingMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2001 Jul)
  49. Power Output - Kenji Doma, Akhilesh Kumar Ramachandran, Daniel Boullosa, Jonathan ConnorThe Paradoxical Effect of Creatine Monohydrate on Muscle Damage Markers: A Systematic Review and Meta-AnalysisSports Med.(2022 Feb 26)
  50. Power Output - Bethany Northeast, Tom CliffordThe Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Markers of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Intervention TrialsInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2021 Feb 24)
  51. Power Output - Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, Caballero-García A, Córdova A, Fernández-Lázaro DEffects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Nutrients.(2019-Mar-31)
  52. Power Output - Lanhers C, Pereira B, Naughton G, Trousselard M, Lesage FX, Dutheil FCreatine Supplementation and Upper Limb Strength Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Sports Med.(2017-Jan)
  53. Power Output - Charlotte Lanhers, Bruno Pereira, Geraldine Naughton, Marion Trousselard, François-Xavier Lesage, Frédéric DutheilCreatine Supplementation and Lower Limb Strength Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-AnalysesSports Med.(2015 Sep)
  54. Muscle Creatine Content - Watt KK, Garnham AP, Snow RJSkeletal muscle total creatine content and creatine transporter gene expression in vegetarians prior to and following creatine supplementationInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2004 Oct)
  55. Muscle Creatine Content - Nelson AG, Arnall DA, Kokkonen J, Day R, Evans JMuscle glycogen supercompensation is enhanced by prior creatine supplementationMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2001 Jul)
  56. Muscle Creatine Content - Thompson CH, Kemp GJ, Sanderson AL, Dixon RM, Styles P, Taylor DJ, Radda GKEffect of creatine on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism in skeletal muscle in swimmersBr J Sports Med.(1996 Sep)
  57. Muscle Creatine Content - Jeffrey J Brault, Theodore F Towse, Jill M Slade, Ronald A MeyerParallel increases in phosphocreatine and total creatine in human vastus lateralis muscle during creatine supplementationInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2007 Dec)
  58. Muscle Creatine Content - McConell GK, Shinewell J, Stephens TJ, Stathis CG, Canny BJ, Snow RJCreatine supplementation reduces muscle inosine monophosphate during endurance exercise in humansMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2005 Dec)
  59. Muscle Creatine Content - van Loon LJ, Oosterlaar AM, Hartgens F, Hesselink MK, Snow RJ, Wagenmakers AJEffects of creatine loading and prolonged creatine supplementation on body composition, fuel selection, sprint and endurance performance in humansClin Sci (Lond).(2003 Feb)
  60. Weight - Murphy AJ, Watsford ML, Coutts AJ, Richards DAEffects of creatine supplementation on aerobic power and cardiovascular structure and functionJ Sci Med Sport.(2005 Sep)
  61. Weight - Eckerson JM, Stout JR, Moore GA, Stone NJ, Nishimura K, Tamura KEffect of two and five days of creatine loading on anaerobic working capacity in womenJ Strength Cond Res.(2004 Feb)
  62. Weight - Eckerson JM, Stout JR, Moore GA, Stone NJ, Iwan KA, Gebauer AN, Ginsberg REffect of creatine phosphate supplementation on anaerobic working capacity and body weight after two and six days of loading in men and womenJ Strength Cond Res.(2005 Nov)
  63. Weight - Walter AA, Smith AE, Herda TJ, Ryan ED, Moon JR, Cramer JT, Stout JREffects of creatine loading on electromyographic fatigue threshold in cycle ergometry in college-age menInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2008 Apr)
  64. Weight - Smith AE, Walter AA, Herda TJ, Ryan ED, Moon JR, Cramer JT, Stout JREffects of creatine loading on electromyographic fatigue threshold during cycle ergometry in college-aged womenJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2007 Nov 26)
  65. Weight - Hoffman JR, Stout JR, Falvo MJ, Kang J, Ratamess NAEffect of low-dose, short-duration creatine supplementation on anaerobic exercise performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2005 May)
  66. Anaerobic Capacity - Kinugasa R, Akima H, Ota A, Ohta A, Sugiura K, Kuno SYShort-term creatine supplementation does not improve muscle activation or sprint performance in humansEur J Appl Physiol.(2004 Mar)
  67. Anaerobic Capacity - Havenetidis K, Bourdas DCreatine supplementation: effects on urinary excretion and anaerobic performanceJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2003 Sep)
  68. Fatigue Resistance - Stout JR, Cramer JT, Mielke M, O'Kroy J, Torok DJ, Zoeller RFEffects of twenty-eight days of beta-alanine and creatine monohydrate supplementation on the physical working capacity at neuromuscular fatigue thresholdJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 Nov)
  69. Fatigue Resistance - Stout JR, Sue Graves B, Cramer JT, Goldstein ER, Costa PB, Smith AE, Walter AAEffects of creatine supplementation on the onset of neuromuscular fatigue threshold and muscle strength in elderly men and women (64 - 86 years)J Nutr Health Aging.(2007 Nov-Dec)
  70. Fatigue Resistance - Damien Gras, Charlotte Lanhers, Reza Bagheri, Ukadike Chris Ugbolue, Emmanuel Coudeyre, Bruno Pereira, Marek Zak, Jean-Baptiste Bouillon-Minois, Frédéric DutheilCreatine supplementation and VO 2 max: a systematic review and meta-analysisCrit Rev Food Sci Nutr.(2021 Dec 3)
  71. Muscular Endurance - Armentano MJ, Brenner AK, Hedman TL, Solomon ZT, Chavez J, Kemper GB, Salzberg D, Battafarano DF, Christie DSThe effect and safety of short-term creatine supplementation on performance of push-upsMil Med.(2007 Mar)
  72. Muscular Endurance - Ayoama R, Hiruma E, Sasaki HEffects of creatine loading on muscular strength and endurance of female softball playersJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2003 Dec)
  73. Heart Rate - Dabidi Roshan V, Babaei H, Hosseinzadeh M, Arendt-Nielsen LThe effect of creatine supplementation on muscle fatigue and physiological indices following intermittent swimming boutsJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2013 Jun)
  74. Satellite Cell Recruitment - Olsen S, Aagaard P, Kadi F, Tufekovic G, Verney J, Olesen JL, Suetta C, Kjaer MCreatine supplementation augments the increase in satellite cell and myonuclei number in human skeletal muscle induced by strength trainingJ Physiol.(2006 Jun 1)
  75. Aerobic Exercise Metrics - Reardon TF, Ruell PA, Fiatarone Singh MA, Thompson CH, Rooney KBCreatine supplementation does not enhance submaximal aerobic training adaptations in healthy young men and womenEur J Appl Physiol.(2006 Oct)
  76. IGF-1 - Burke DG, Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, MacNeil LG, Roy BD, Tarnopolsky MA, Ziegenfuss TEffect of creatine supplementation and resistance-exercise training on muscle insulin-like growth factor in young adultsInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2008 Aug)
  77. IGF-1 - Louise Deldicque, Magali Louis, Daniel Theisen, Henri Nielens, Mischaël Dehoux, Jean-Paul Thissen, Michael J Rennie, Marc FrancauxIncreased IGF mRNA in human skeletal muscle after creatine supplementationMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2005 May)
  78. Skeletal Muscle Atrophy - Johnston AP, Burke DG, MacNeil LG, Candow DGEffect of creatine supplementation during cast-induced immobilization on the preservation of muscle mass, strength, and enduranceJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 Jan)
  79. Muscle Damage - Cooke MB, Rybalka E, Williams AD, Cribb PJ, Hayes ACreatine supplementation enhances muscle force recovery after eccentrically-induced muscle damage in healthy individualsJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2009 Jun 2)
  80. Hydration (Total Body Water) - Nicholas Sculthorpe, Fergal Grace, Peter Jones, Iain FletcherThe effect of short-term creatine loading on active range of movementAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2010 Aug)
  81. Growth Hormone - Schedel JM, Tanaka H, Kiyonaga A, Shindo M, Schutz YAcute creatine loading enhances human growth hormone secretionJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2000 Dec)
  82. Creatinine - Deminice R, Rosa FT, Franco GS, Jordao AA, de Freitas ECEffects of creatine supplementation on oxidative stress and inflammatory markers after repeated-sprint exercise in humansNutrition.(2013 Sep)
  83. Muscle Damage - Santos RV, Bassit RA, Caperuto EC, Costa Rosa LFThe effect of creatine supplementation upon inflammatory and muscle soreness markers after a 30km raceLife Sci.(2004 Sep 3)
  84. Anaerobic Capacity - Javierre C, Barbany JR, Bonjorn VM, Lizárraga MA, Ventura JL, Segura RCreatine supplementation and performance in 6 consecutive 60 meter sprintsJ Physiol Biochem.(2004 Dec)
  85. Anaerobic Capacity - Fukuda DH, Smith AE, Kendall KL, Dwyer TR, Kerksick CM, Beck TW, Cramer JT, Stout JRThe effects of creatine loading and gender on anaerobic running capacityJ Strength Cond Res.(2010 Jul)
  86. Anaerobic Capacity - Ahmun RP, Tong RJ, Grimshaw PNThe effects of acute creatine supplementation on multiple sprint cycling and running performance in rugby playersJ Strength Cond Res.(2005 Feb)
  87. Anaerobic Capacity - Glaister M, Lockey RA, Abraham CS, Staerck A, Goodwin JE, McInnes GCreatine supplementation and multiple sprint running performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 May)
  88. Anaerobic Capacity - Wright GA, Grandjean PW, Pascoe DDThe effects of creatine loading on thermoregulation and intermittent sprint exercise performance in a hot humid environmentJ Strength Cond Res.(2007 Aug)
  89. Swimming Performance Metrics - Mujika I, Chatard JC, Lacoste L, Barale F, Geyssant ACreatine supplementation does not improve sprint performance in competitive swimmersMed Sci Sports Exerc.(1996 Nov)
  90. Weight - Smith AE, Fukuda DH, Ryan ED, Kendall KL, Cramer JT, Stout JErgolytic/ergogenic effects of creatine on aerobic powerInt J Sports Med.(2011 Dec)
  91. Weight - Fuld JP, Kilduff LP, Neder JA, Pitsiladis Y, Lean ME, Ward SA, Cotton MMCreatine supplementation during pulmonary rehabilitation in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseThorax.(2005 Jul)
  92. Weight - Deacon SJ, Vincent EE, Greenhaff PL, Fox J, Steiner MC, Singh SJ, Morgan MDRandomized controlled trial of dietary creatine as an adjunct therapy to physical training in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseAm J Respir Crit Care Med.(2008 Aug 1)
  93. Exercise Capacity (with Heart Conditions) - Al-Ghimlas F, Todd DCCreatine supplementation for patients with COPD receiving pulmonary rehabilitation: a systematic review and meta-analysisRespirology.(2010 Jul)
  94. Subjective Well-Being - McMorris T, Harris RC, Swain J, Corbett J, Collard K, Dyson RJ, Dye L, Hodgson C, Draper NEffect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with mild exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisolPsychopharmacology (Berl).(2006 Mar)
  95. Subjective Well-Being - McMorris T, Harris RC, Howard AN, Langridge G, Hall B, Corbett J, Dicks M, Hodgson CCreatine supplementation, sleep deprivation, cortisol, melatonin and behaviorPhysiol Behav.(2007 Jan 30)
  96. Fatigue Symptoms - Watanabe A, Kato N, Kato TEffects of creatine on mental fatigue and cerebral hemoglobin oxygenationNeurosci Res.(2002 Apr)
  97. Cognition - Rae C, Digney AL, McEwan SR, Bates TCOral creatine monohydrate supplementation improves brain performance: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trialProc Biol Sci.(2003 Oct 22)
  98. Cognition - Benton D, Donohoe RThe influence of creatine supplementation on the cognitive functioning of vegetarians and omnivoresBr J Nutr.(2011 Apr)
  99. Cognition - Rawson ES, Lieberman HR, Walsh TM, Zuber SM, Harhart JM, Matthews TCCreatine supplementation does not improve cognitive function in young adultsPhysiol Behav.(2008 Sep 3)
  100. Cognition - McMorris T, Mielcarz G, Harris RC, Swain JP, Howard ACreatine supplementation and cognitive performance in elderly individualsNeuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn.(2007 Sep)
  101. Memory - Prokopidis K, Giannos P, Triantafyllidis KK, Kechagias KS, Forbes SC, Candow DGEffects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Nutr Rev.(2023-Mar-10)
  102. Alertness - Pan JW, Takahashi KCerebral energetic effects of creatine supplementation in humansAm J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.(2007 Apr)
  103. Oxygen Uptake - Kingsley M, Cunningham D, Mason L, Kilduff LP, McEneny JRole of creatine supplementation on exercise-induced cardiovascular function and oxidative stressOxid Med Cell Longev.(2009 Sep-Oct)
  104. Power Output - Burke LM, Pyne DB, Telford RDEffect of oral creatine supplementation on single-effort sprint performance in elite swimmersInt J Sport Nutr.(1996 Sep)
  105. Power Output - Silva AJ, Machado Reis V, Guidetti L, Bessone Alves F, Mota P, Freitas J, Baldari CEffect of creatine on swimming velocity, body composition and hydrodynamic variablesJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2007 Mar)
  106. Power Output - Anomasiri W, Sanguanrungsirikul S, Saichandee PLow dose creatine supplementation enhances sprint phase of 400 meters swimming performanceJ Med Assoc Thai.(2004 Sep)
  107. Power Output - Juhász I, Györe I, Csende Z, Rácz L, Tihanyi JCreatine supplementation improves the anaerobic performance of elite junior fin swimmersActa Physiol Hung.(2009 Sep)
  108. Power Output - Theodorou AS, Havenetidis K, Zanker CL, O'Hara JP, King RF, Hood C, Paradisis G, Cooke CBEffects of acute creatine loading with or without carbohydrate on repeated bouts of maximal swimming in high-performance swimmersJ Strength Cond Res.(2005 May)
  109. Swimming Performance Metrics - Mendes RR, Pires I, Oliveira A, Tirapegui JEffects of creatine supplementation on the performance and body composition of competitive swimmersJ Nutr Biochem.(2004 Aug)
  110. Swimming Performance Metrics - Selsby JT, Beckett KD, Kern M, Devor STSwim performance following creatine supplementation in Division III athletesJ Strength Cond Res.(2003 Aug)
  111. Swimming Performance Metrics - Leenders NM, Lamb DR, Nelson TECreatine supplementation and swimming performanceInt J Sport Nutr.(1999 Sep)
  112. Swimming Performance Metrics - Peyrebrune MC, Stokes K, Hall GM, Nevill MEEffect of creatine supplementation on training for competition in elite swimmersMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2005 Dec)
  113. Swimming Performance Metrics - Dawson B, Vladich T, Blanksby BAEffects of 4 weeks of creatine supplementation in junior swimmers on freestyle sprint and swim bench performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2002 Nov)
  114. Swimming Performance Metrics - Theodorou AS, Cooke CB, King RF, Hood C, Denison T, Wainwright BG, Havenetidis KThe effect of longer-term creatine supplementation on elite swimming performance after an acute creatine loadingJ Sports Sci.(1999 Nov)
  115. Swimming Performance Metrics - D. Sheikholeslami Vatania, H. Farajib, R. Sooric, M. MogharnasidThe effects of creatine supplementation on performance and hormonal response in amateur swimmersScience and Sports.()
  116. Anaerobic Capacity - Mero AA, Keskinen KL, Malvela MT, Sallinen JMCombined creatine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation enhances interval swimmingJ Strength Cond Res.(2004 May)
  117. Hydration (Total Body Water) - Weiss BA, Powers MECreatine supplementation does not impair the thermoregulatory response during a bout of exercise in the heatJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2006 Dec)
  118. Hydration (Total Body Water) - Easton C, Turner S, Pitsiladis YPCreatine and glycerol hyperhydration in trained subjects before exercise in the heatInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2007 Feb)
  119. Hydration (Total Body Water) - Watson G, Casa DJ, Fiala KA, Hile A, Roti MW, Healey JC, Armstrong LE, Maresh CMCreatine use and exercise heat tolerance in dehydrated menJ Athl Train.(2006 Jan-Mar)
  120. Hydration (Total Body Water) - Lopez RM, Casa DJ, McDermott BP, Ganio MS, Armstrong LE, Maresh CMDoes creatine supplementation hinder exercise heat tolerance or hydration status? A systematic review with meta-analysesJ Athl Train.(2009 Mar-Apr)
  121. Muscle Creatine Content - Hadjicharalambous M, Kilduff LP, Pitsiladis YPBrain serotonin and dopamine modulators, perceptual responses and endurance performance during exercise in the heat following creatine supplementationJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2008 Sep 30)
  122. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Pastula DM, Moore DH, Bedlack RSCreatine for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/motor neuron diseaseCochrane Database Syst Rev.(2012 Dec 12)
  123. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Shefner JM, Cudkowicz ME, Schoenfeld D, Conrad T, Taft J, Chilton M, Urbinelli L, Qureshi M, Zhang H, Pestronk A, Caress J, Donofrio P, Sorenson E, Bradley W, Lomen-Hoerth C, Pioro E, Rezania K, Ross M, Pascuzzi R, Heiman-Patterson T, Tandan R, Mitsumoto H, Rothstein J, Smith-Palmer T, MacDonald D, Burke D; NEALS ConsortiumA clinical trial of creatine in ALSNeurology.(2004 Nov 9)
  124. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Mazzini L, Balzarini C, Colombo R, Mora G, Pastore I, De Ambrogio R, Caligari MEffects of creatine supplementation on exercise performance and muscular strength in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: preliminary resultsJ Neurol Sci.(2001 Oct 15)
  125. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Groeneveld GJ, Veldink JH, van der Tweel I, Kalmijn S, Beijer C, de Visser M, Wokke JH, Franssen H, van den Berg LHA randomized sequential trial of creatine in amyotrophic lateral sclerosisAnn Neurol.(2003 Apr)
  126. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Rosenfeld J, King RM, Jackson CE, Bedlack RS, Barohn RJ, Dick A, Phillips LH, Chapin J, Gelinas DF, Lou JSCreatine monohydrate in ALS: effects on strength, fatigue, respiratory status and ALSFRSAmyotroph Lateral Scler.(2008 Oct)
  127. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Drory VE, Gross DNo effect of creatine on respiratory distress in amyotrophic lateral sclerosisAmyotroph Lateral Scler Other Motor Neuron Disord.(2002 Mar)
  128. Kidney Function - Groeneveld GJ, Beijer C, Veldink JH, Kalmijn S, Wokke JH, van den Berg LHFew adverse effects of long-term creatine supplementation in a placebo-controlled trialInt J Sports Med.(2005 May)
  129. Parkinson's Disease Symptoms - Writing Group for the NINDS Exploratory Trials in Parkinson Disease (NET-PD) Investigators, Kieburtz K, Tilley BC, Elm JJ, Babcock D, Hauser R, Ross GW, Augustine AH, Augustine EU, Aminoff MJ, Bodis-Wollner IG, Boyd J, Cambi F, Chou K, Christine CW, Cines M, Dahodwala N, Derwent L, Dewey RB Jr, Hawthorne K, Houghton DJ, Kamp C, Leehey M, Lew MF, Liang GS, Luo ST, Mari Z, Morgan JC, Parashos S, Pérez A, Petrovitch H, Rajan S, Reichwein S, Roth JT, Schneider JS, Shannon KM, Simon DK, Simuni T, Singer C, Sudarsky L, Tanner CM, Umeh CC, Williams K, Wills AMEffect of creatine monohydrate on clinical progression in patients with Parkinson disease: a randomized clinical trialJAMA.(2015 Feb 10)
  130. Parkinson's Disease Symptoms - Bender A, Koch W, Elstner M, Schombacher Y, Bender J, Moeschl M, Gekeler F, Müller-Myhsok B, Gasser T, Tatsch K, Klopstock TCreatine supplementation in Parkinson disease: a placebo-controlled randomized pilot trialNeurology.(2006 Oct 10)
  131. Parkinson's Disease Symptoms - Mo JJ, Liu LY, Peng WB, Rao J, Liu Z, Cui LLThe effectiveness of creatine treatment for Parkinson's disease: an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.BMC Neurol.(2017-Jun-02)
  132. Parkinson's Disease Symptoms - Xiao Y, Luo M, Luo H, Wang JCreatine for Parkinson's disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.(2014-Jun-17)
  133. Power Output - Hass CJ, Collins MA, Juncos JLResistance training with creatine monohydrate improves upper-body strength in patients with Parkinson disease: a randomized trialNeurorehabil Neural Repair.(2007 Mar-Apr)
  134. Depression Symptoms - Kondo DG, Sung YH, Hellem TL, Fiedler KK, Shi X, Jeong EK, Renshaw PFOpen-label adjunctive creatine for female adolescents with SSRI-resistant major depressive disorder: a 31-phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy studyJ Affect Disord.(2011 Dec)
  135. Depression Symptoms - Lyoo IK, Yoon S, Kim TS, Hwang J, Kim JE, Won W, Bae S, Renshaw PFA randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial of oral creatine monohydrate augmentation for enhanced response to a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in women with major depressive disorderAm J Psychiatry.(2012 Sep)
  136. Depression Symptoms - Roitman S, Green T, Osher Y, Karni N, Levine JCreatine monohydrate in resistant depression: a preliminary studyBipolar Disord.(2007 Nov)
  137. Food Intake - Gualano B, Novaes RB, Artioli GG, Freire TO, Coelho DF, Scagliusi FB, Rogeri PS, Roschel H, Ugrinowitsch C, Lancha AH JrEffects of creatine supplementation on glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in sedentary healthy males undergoing aerobic trainingAmino Acids.(2008 Feb)
  138. Total cholesterol - Gualano B, Ugrinowitsch C, Artioli GG, Benatti FB, Scagliusi FB, Harris RC, Lancha AH JrDoes creatine supplementation improve the plasma lipid profile in healthy male subjects undergoing aerobic trainingJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2008 Oct 3)
  139. Total cholesterol - Schilling BK, Stone MH, Utter A, Kearney JT, Johnson M, Coglianese R, Smith L, O'Bryant HS, Fry AC, Starks M, Keith R, Stone MECreatine supplementation and health variables: a retrospective studyMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2001 Feb)
  140. Insulin - van Loon LJ, Murphy R, Oosterlaar AM, Cameron-Smith D, Hargreaves M, Wagenmakers AJ, Snow RCreatine supplementation increases glycogen storage but not GLUT-4 expression in human skeletal muscleClin Sci (Lond).(2004 Jan)
  141. Insulin - Rooney KB, Bryson JM, Digney AL, Rae CD, Thompson CHCreatine supplementation affects glucose homeostasis but not insulin secretion in humansAnn Nutr Metab.(2003)
  142. Muscle Creatine Content - Robinson TM, Sewell DA, Hultman E, Greenhaff PLRole of submaximal exercise in promoting creatine and glycogen accumulation in human skeletal muscleJ Appl Physiol (1985).(1999 Aug)
  143. Muscle Creatine Content - Op 't Eijnde B, Ursø B, Richter EA, Greenhaff PL, Hespel PEffect of oral creatine supplementation on human muscle GLUT4 protein content after immobilizationDiabetes.(2001 Jan)
  144. Testosterone - van der Merwe J, Brooks NE, Myburgh KHThree weeks of creatine monohydrate supplementation affects dihydrotestosterone to testosterone ratio in college-aged rugby playersClin J Sport Med.(2009 Sep)
  145. Fasting Glucose - Delpino FM, Figueiredo LMDoes creatine supplementation improve glycemic control and insulin resistance in healthy and diabetic patients? A systematic review and meta-analysis.Clin Nutr ESPEN.(2022-Feb)
  146. Glycemic Control - Gualano B, DE Salles Painneli V, Roschel H, Artioli GG, Neves M Jr, De Sá Pinto AL, Da Silva ME, Cunha MR, Otaduy MC, Leite Cda C, Ferreira JC, Pereira RM, Brum PC, Bonfá E, Lancha AH JrCreatine in type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2011 May)
  147. Kidney Function - Gualano B, de Salles Painelli V, Roschel H, Lugaresi R, Dorea E, Artioli GG, Lima FR, da Silva ME, Cunha MR, Seguro AC, Shimizu MH, Otaduy MC, Sapienza MT, da Costa Leite C, Bonfá E, Lancha Junior AHCreatine supplementation does not impair kidney function in type 2 diabetic patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical trialEur J Appl Physiol.(2011 May)
  148. Oxygen Uptake - Zoeller RF, Stout JR, O'kroy JA, Torok DJ, Mielke MEffects of 28 days of beta-alanine and creatine monohydrate supplementation on aerobic power, ventilatory and lactate thresholds, and time to exhaustionAmino Acids.(2007 Sep)
  149. Anaerobic Capacity - Okudan N, Gokbel HThe effects of creatine supplementation on performance during the repeated bouts of supramaximal exerciseJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2005 Dec)
  150. Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms - Tarnopolsky M, Mahoney D, Thompson T, Naylor H, Doherty TJCreatine monohydrate supplementation does not increase muscle strength, lean body mass, or muscle phosphocreatine in patients with myotonic dystrophy type 1Muscle Nerve.(2004 Jan)
  151. Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms - Walter MC, Reilich P, Lochmüller H, Kohnen R, Schlotter B, Hautmann H, Dunkl E, Pongratz D, Müller-Felber WCreatine monohydrate in myotonic dystrophy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical studyJ Neurol.(2002 Dec)
  152. Creatinine - Kornblum C, Schröder R, Müller K, Vorgerd M, Eggers J, Bogdanow M, Papassotiropoulos A, Fabian K, Klockgether T, Zange JCreatine has no beneficial effect on skeletal muscle energy metabolism in patients with single mitochondrial DNA deletions: a placebo-controlled, double-blind 31P-MRS crossover studyEur J Neurol.(2005 Apr)
  153. Creatinine - Mayhew DL, Mayhew JL, Ware JSEffects of long-term creatine supplementation on liver and kidney functions in American college football playersInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2002 Dec)
  154. Kidney Function - Gualano B, Ugrinowitsch C, Novaes RB, Artioli GG, Shimizu MH, Seguro AC, Harris RC, Lancha AH JrEffects of creatine supplementation on renal function: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialEur J Appl Physiol.(2008 May)
  155. Kidney Function - Gualano B, Ferreira DC, Sapienza MT, Seguro AC, Lancha AH JrEffect of short-term high-dose creatine supplementation on measured GFR in a young man with a single kidneyAm J Kidney Dis.(2010 Mar)
  156. Power Output - Rahimi RCreatine supplementation decreases oxidative DNA damage and lipid peroxidation induced by a single bout of resistance exerciseJ Strength Cond Res.(2011 Dec)
  157. Power Output - Hespel P, Op't Eijnde B, Van Leemputte M, Ursø B, Greenhaff PL, Labarque V, Dymarkowski S, Van Hecke P, Richter EAOral creatine supplementation facilitates the rehabilitation of disuse atrophy and alters the expression of muscle myogenic factors in humansJ Physiol.(2001 Oct 15)
  158. Muscle Damage - Bassit RA, Pinheiro CH, Vitzel KF, Sproesser AJ, Silveira LR, Curi REffect of short-term creatine supplementation on markers of skeletal muscle damage after strenuous contractile activityEur J Appl Physiol.(2010 Mar)
  159. Muscle Damage - Rawson ES, Conti MP, Miles MPCreatine supplementation does not reduce muscle damage or enhance recovery from resistance exerciseJ Strength Cond Res.(2007 Nov)
  160. Creatine Kinase - Yue Jiaming, Mohammad Hossein RahimiCreatine supplementation effect on recovery following exercise-induced muscle damage: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trialsJ Food Biochem.(2021 Oct)
  161. Upper Body Strength - Christiano R R Alves, Bianca M Santiago, Fernanda R Lima, Maria C G Otaduy, Ana Luisa Calich, Aline C C Tritto, Ana Lúcia de Sá Pinto, Hamilton Roschel, Cláudia C Leite, Fabiana B Benatti, Eloisa Bonfá, Bruno GualanoCreatine supplementation in fibromyalgia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialArthritis Care Res (Hoboken).(2013 Sep)
  162. Fibromyalgia Symptoms - Avi Leader, Daniella Amital, Alan Rubinow, Howard AmitalAn open-label study adding creatine monohydrate to ongoing medical regimens in patients with the fibromyalgia syndromeAnn N Y Acad Sci.(2009 Sep)
  163. Huntington's Disease Symptoms - Verbessem P, Lemiere J, Eijnde BO, Swinnen S, Vanhees L, Van Leemputte M, Hespel P, Dom RCreatine supplementation in Huntington's disease: a placebo-controlled pilot trialNeurology.(2003 Oct 14)
  164. Huntington's Disease Symptoms - Andreas Bender, Dorothee P Auer, Thomas Merl, Ralf Reilmann, Phillip Saemann, Alexander Yassouridis, Julia Bender, Adolf Weindl, Matthias Dose, Thomas Gasser, Thomas KlopstockCreatine supplementation lowers brain glutamate levels in Huntington's diseaseJ Neurol.(2005 Jan)
  165. Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms - Schneider-Gold C, Beck M, Wessig C, George A, Kele H, Reiners K, Toyka KVCreatine monohydrate in DM2/PROMM: a double-blind placebo-controlled clinical study. Proximal myotonic myopathyNeurology.(2003 Feb 11)
  166. Bilirubin - Roy BD, de Beer J, Harvey D, Tarnopolsky MACreatine monohydrate supplementation does not improve functional recovery after total knee arthroplastyArch Phys Med Rehabil.(2005 Jul)
  167. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Earnest CP, Almada AL, Mitchell TLHigh-performance capillary electrophoresis-pure creatine monohydrate reduces blood lipids in men and womenClin Sci (Lond).(1996 Jul)
  168. Anaerobic Capacity - Perret C, Mueller G, Knecht HInfluence of creatine supplementation on 800 m wheelchair performance: a pilot studySpinal Cord.(2006 May)
  169. Dizziness - George Sakellaris, George Nasis, Maria Kotsiou, Maria Tamiolaki, Giorgos Charissis, Athanasios EvangeliouPrevention of traumatic headache, dizziness and fatigue with creatine administration. A pilot studyActa Paediatr.(2008 Jan)
  170. Functionality in Elderly or Injured - Cañete S, San Juan AF, Pérez M, Gómez-Gallego F, López-Mojares LM, Earnest CP, Fleck SJ, Lucia ADoes creatine supplementation improve functional capacity in elderly womenJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 Feb)
  171. Bone Mineral Density - Chilibeck PD, Chrusch MJ, Chad KE, Shawn Davison K, Burke DGCreatine monohydrate and resistance training increase bone mineral content and density in older menJ Nutr Health Aging.(2005 Sep-Oct)
  172. Bone Mineral Density - Scott C Forbes, Philip D Chilibeck, Darren G CandowCreatine Supplementation During Resistance Training Does Not Lead to Greater Bone Mineral Density in Older Humans: A Brief Meta-AnalysisFront Nutr.(2018 Apr 24)
  173. Alertness - Cook CJ, Crewther BT, Kilduff LP, Drawer S, Gaviglio CMSkill execution and sleep deprivation: effects of acute caffeine or creatine supplementation - a randomized placebo-controlled trialJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2011 Feb 16)
  174. Uric Acid - Cancela P, Ohanian C, Cuitiño E, Hackney ACCreatine supplementation does not affect clinical health markers in football playersBr J Sports Med.(2008 Sep)
  175. Homocysteine - Korzun WJOral creatine supplements lower plasma homocysteine concentrations in humansClin Lab Sci.(2004 Spring)
  176. Lean Mass - Norman K, Stübler D, Baier P, Schütz T, Ocran K, Holm E, Lochs H, Pirlich MEffects of creatine supplementation on nutritional status, muscle function and quality of life in patients with colorectal cancer--a double blind randomised controlled trialClin Nutr.(2006 Aug)
  177. Muscle Creatine Content - Jacques R Poortmans, Alain Kumps, Pierre Duez, Aline Fofonka, Alain Carpentier, Marc FrancauxEffect of oral creatine supplementation on urinary methylamine, formaldehyde, and formateMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2005 Oct)
  178. Kidney Function - Taes YE, Delanghe JR, De Bacquer D, Langlois M, Stevens L, Geerolf I, Lameire NH, De Vriese ASCreatine supplementation does not decrease total plasma homocysteine in chronic hemodialysis patientsKidney Int.(2004 Dec)
  179. Mitochondrial Cytopathies Symptoms - A Borchert, E Wilichowski, F HanefeldSupplementation with creatine monohydrate in children with mitochondrial encephalomyopathiesMuscle Nerve.(1999 Sep)
  180. Anaerobic Capacity - Cornish SM, Chilibeck PD, Burke DGThe effect of creatine monohydrate supplementation on sprint skating in ice-hockey playersJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2006 Mar)
  181. Exercise Capacity (with Heart Conditions) - Kuethe F, Krack A, Richartz BM, Figulla HRCreatine supplementation improves muscle strength in patients with congestive heart failurePharmazie.(2006 Mar)
  182. Exercise Tolerance - Vorgerd M, Zange J, Kley R, Grehl T, Hüsing A, Jäger M, Müller K, Schröder R, Mortier W, Fabian K, Malin JP, Luttmann AEffect of high-dose creatine therapy on symptoms of exercise intolerance in McArdle disease: double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover studyArch Neurol.(2002 Jan)
  183. Exercise Tolerance - Vorgerd M, Grehl T, Jager M, Muller K, Freitag G, Patzold T, Bruns N, Fabian K, Tegenthoff M, Mortier W, Luttmann A, Zange J, Malin JPCreatine therapy in myophosphorylase deficiency (McArdle disease): a placebo-controlled crossover trialArch Neurol.(2000 Jul)
  184. DNA methylation - Freilinger M, Dunkler D, Lanator I, Item CB, Mühl A, Fowler B, Bodamer OAEffects of creatine supplementation in Rett syndrome: a randomized, placebo-controlled trialJ Dev Behav Pediatr.(2011 Jul-Aug)
  185. Cystic Fibrosis Symptoms - Christian P Braegger, Uwe Schlattner, Theo Wallimann, Anna Utiger, Friederike Frank, Beat Schaefer, Claus W Heizmann, Felix H SennhauserEffects of creatine supplementation in cystic fibrosis: results of a pilot studyJ Cyst Fibros.(2003 Dec)
  186. Aerobic Exercise Metrics - Tarnopolsky MA, Roy BD, MacDonald JRA randomized, controlled trial of creatine monohydrate in patients with mitochondrial cytopathiesMuscle Nerve.(1997 Dec)
  187. Lean Mass - Neves M Jr, Gualano B, Roschel H, Fuller R, Benatti FB, Pinto AL, Lima FR, Pereira RM, Lancha AH Jr, Bonfá EBeneficial effect of creatine supplementation in knee osteoarthritisMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2011 Aug)
  188. Schizophrenia symptoms - Kaptsan A, Odessky A, Osher Y, Levine JLack of efficacy of 5 grams daily of creatine in schizophrenia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialJ Clin Psychiatry.(2007 Jun)
  189. Power Output - Lamontagne-Lacasse M, Nadon R, Goulet EDEffect of Creatine Supplementation on Jumping Performance in Elite Volleyball PlayersInt J Sports Physiol Perform.(2011 Aug 22)
  190. Kidney Function - Manoel Neves Jr, Bruno Gualano, Hamilton Roschel, Fernanda Rodrigues Lima, Ana Lúcia de Sá-Pinto, Antonio Carlos Seguro, Maria Heloisa Shimizu, Marcelo Tatit Sapienza, Ricardo Fuller, Antonio Herbert Lancha Jr, Eloisa BonfáEffect of creatine supplementation on measured glomerular filtration rate in postmenopausal womenAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2011 Jun)
  191. Power Output - Pluim BM, Ferrauti A, Broekhof F, Deutekom M, Gotzmann A, Kuipers H, Weber KThe effects of creatine supplementation on selected factors of tennis specific trainingBr J Sports Med.(2006 Jun)
  192. Power Output - Koenig CA, Benardot D, Cody M, Thompson WRComparison of creatine monohydrate and carbohydrate supplementation on repeated jump height performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2008 Jul)