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Coffee

Sometimes referred to as liquid gold, coffee is the most popular source of caffeine in North America (and behind only teas worldwide). Also a source of tons of nutrients, and most recently touted as a source of chlorogenic acid and ferulic acid.

Our evidence-based analysis on coffee features 67 unique references to scientific papers.

Kamal Patel
Research analysis led by and reviewed by the Examine team.
Last Updated:

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Research Breakdown on Coffee

(Constituents found here[1])

  • Caffeine, sometimes at 1% total weight of coffee beans.[2]

  • Chlorogenic Acid, up to 7% total weight of coffee beans[2] but found to a higher level in Green coffee extract

  • Chlorogenic Lactone

  • Caffeic Acid

  • Nicotinic Acid

  • N-methylpyridinium compounds[3]

  • Cholinergic compounds

  • 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF)

  • Trigonelline, up to 1% of coffee beans by weight.[2]

  • Pyrogallol[4]

  • Catechol[4]

  • Melanodin structures, or small phenolics bound to sugars[5][6]

Beans also tend to have: 13% oil content by weight, 13% protein content by weight, 15% hemicellulose and 18% holocellulose, 2% lignan, 4% ash, 3% pectin, 7% sucrose and 1% reducing sugars.[2]

Doses of all compounds vary on bean quality, length to initiation of processing, type of processing and preparation method, and length of time processed.

References

  1. ^ Oka K. Pharmacological bases of coffee nutrients for diabetes prevention. Yakugaku Zasshi. (2007)
  2. ^ a b c d Ramalakshmi K, Raghavan B. Caffeine in coffee: its removal. Why and how. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. (1999)
  3. ^ Kotyczka C, et al. Dark roast coffee is more effective than light roast coffee in reducing body weight, and in restoring red blood cell vitamin E and glutathione concentrations in healthy volunteers. Mol Nutr Food Res. (2011)
  4. ^ a b Rubach M, et al. Multi-parametric approach to identify coffee components that regulate mechanisms of gastric acid secretion. Mol Nutr Food Res. (2012)
  5. ^ Moreira AS, et al. Coffee melanoidins: structures, mechanisms of formation and potential health impacts. Food Funct. (2012)
  6. ^ Fogliano V, Morales FJ. Estimation of dietary intake of melanoidins from coffee and bread. Food Funct. (2011)
  7. Kempf K, et al. Effects of coffee consumption on subclinical inflammation and other risk factors for type 2 diabetes: a clinical trial. Am J Clin Nutr. (2010)
  8. McCusker RR, Goldberger BA, Cone EJ. Caffeine content of energy drinks, carbonated sodas, and other beverages. J Anal Toxicol. (2006)
  9. Desbrow B, Hall S, Irwin C. Caffeine content of Nespresso® pod coffee. Nutr Health. (2019)
  10. Ludwig IA, et al. Variations in caffeine and chlorogenic acid contents of coffees: what are we drinking?. Food Funct. (2014)
  11. Fox GP, et al. Variation in caffeine concentration in single coffee beans. J Agric Food Chem. (2013)
  12. McCusker RR, Goldberger BA, Cone EJ. Caffeine content of specialty coffees. J Anal Toxicol. (2003)
  13. Angeloni G, et al. What kind of coffee do you drink? An investigation on effects of eight different extraction methods. Food Res Int. (2019)
  14. Noordzij M, et al. Blood pressure response to chronic intake of coffee and caffeine: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Hypertens. (2005)
  15. World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines.
  16. Juliano LM, et al. Characterization of individuals seeking treatment for caffeine dependence. Psychol Addict Behav. (2012)
  17. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). Safety of caffeine. EFSA Journal. (2015)
  18. Food and Nutrition Board. Caffeine in Food and Dietary Supplements: Examining Safety: Workshop Summary.. The National Academies Press. (2014)
  19. Nawrot P, et al. Effects of caffeine on human health. Food Addit Contam. (2003)
  20. Committee on Military Nutrition Research, Food and Nutrition Board. Caffeine for the Sustainment of Mental Task Performance: Formulations for Military Operations.
  21. Wikoff D, et al. Systematic review of the potential adverse effects of caffeine consumption in healthy adults, pregnant women, adolescents, and children. Food Chem Toxicol. (2017)
  22. Giannelli M, et al. The effect of caffeine consumption and nausea on the risk of miscarriage. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. (2003)
  23. Morgan S, Koren G, Bozzo P. Is caffeine consumption safe during pregnancy?. Can Fam Physician. (2013)
  24. Knutti R, Rothweiler H, Schlatter C. The effect of pregnancy on the pharmacokinetics of caffeine. Arch Toxicol Suppl. (1982)
  25. Ruxton CH. The suitability of caffeinated drinks for children: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials, observational studies and expert panel guidelines. J Hum Nutr Diet. (2014)
  26. Committee on Nutrition Standards for Foods in Schools. Nutrition Standards for Foods in Schools: Leading the Way Toward Healthier Youth. The National Academies Press. (2007)
  27. Arria MA, et al. Letter to Commissioner Hamburg Re: The Use of Caffeine in Energy Drinks.
  28. Mort JR, Kruse HR. Timing of blood pressure measurement related to caffeine consumption. Ann Pharmacother. (2008)
  29. Poole R, et al. Coffee consumption and health: umbrella review of meta-analyses of multiple health outcomes. BMJ. (2017)
  30. Voskoboinik A, Kalman JM, Kistler PM. Caffeine and Arrhythmias: Time to Grind the Data. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. (2018)
  31. Temple JL, et al. The Safety of Ingested Caffeine: A Comprehensive Review. Front Psychiatry. (2017)
  32. Yen M, Ewald MB. Toxicity of weight loss agents. J Med Toxicol. (2012)
  33. Willson C. The clinical toxicology of caffeine: A review and case study. Toxicol Rep. (2018)
  34. Beauchamp GA, et al. A Retrospective Study of Clinical Effects of Powdered Caffeine Exposures Reported to Three US Poison Control Centers. J Med Toxicol. (2016)
  35. Jabbar SB, Hanly MG. Fatal caffeine overdose: a case report and review of literature. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. (2013)
  36. Jones AW. Review of Caffeine-Related Fatalities along with Postmortem Blood Concentrations in 51 Poisoning Deaths. J Anal Toxicol. (2017)
  37. Cappelletti S, et al. Caffeine-Related Deaths: Manner of Deaths and Categories at Risk. Nutrients. (2018)
  38. Desbrow B, et al. The effects of different doses of caffeine on endurance cycling time trial performance. J Sports Sci. (2012)
  39. Beaven CM, et al. Dose effect of caffeine on testosterone and cortisol responses to resistance exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. (2008)
  40. Duncan MJ, Oxford SW. The effect of caffeine ingestion on mood state and bench press performance to failure. J Strength Cond Res. (2011)
  41. Childs E, de Wit H. Subjective, behavioral, and physiological effects of acute caffeine in light, nondependent caffeine users. Psychopharmacology (Berl). (2006)
  42. Rogers PJ, et al. Association of the anxiogenic and alerting effects of caffeine with ADORA2A and ADORA1 polymorphisms and habitual level of caffeine consumption. Neuropsychopharmacology. (2010)
  43. Holtzman SG. CGS 15943, a nonxanthine adenosine receptor antagonist: effects on locomotor activity of nontolerant and caffeine-tolerant rats. Life Sci. (1991)
  44. Barry RJ, Clarke AR, Johnstone SJ. Caffeine and opening the eyes have additive effects on resting arousal measures. Clin Neurophysiol. (2011)
  45. Haskell CF, et al. Cognitive and mood improvements of caffeine in habitual consumers and habitual non-consumers of caffeine. Psychopharmacology (Berl). (2005)
  46. Rogers PJ, et al. Absence of reinforcing, mood and psychomotor performance effects of caffeine in habitual non-consumers of caffeine. Psychopharmacology (Berl). (2003)
  47. Pontifex KJ, et al. Effects of caffeine on repeated sprint ability, reactive agility time, sleep and next day performance. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. (2010)
  48. Glaister M, et al. Caffeine and sprinting performance: dose responses and efficacy. J Strength Cond Res. (2012)
  49. Glaister M, et al. Caffeine supplementation and multiple sprint running performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. (2008)
  50. Schneiker KT, et al. Effects of caffeine on prolonged intermittent-sprint ability in team-sport athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. (2006)
  51. Paton CD, Lowe T, Irvine A. Caffeinated chewing gum increases repeated sprint performance and augments increases in testosterone in competitive cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol. (2010)
  52. Cook C, et al. Acute caffeine ingestion increases voluntarily chosen resistance training load following limited sleep. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. (2012)
  53. Del Coso J, et al. Dose response effects of a caffeine-containing energy drink on muscle performance: a repeated measures design. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. (2012)
  54. Mora-Rodríguez R, et al. Caffeine ingestion reverses the circadian rhythm effects on neuromuscular performance in highly resistance-trained men. PLoS One. (2012)
  55. Astorino TA, et al. Effect of two doses of caffeine on muscular function during isokinetic exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. (2010)
  56. Pedersen DJ, et al. High rates of muscle glycogen resynthesis after exhaustive exercise when carbohydrate is coingested with caffeine. J Appl Physiol (1985). (2008)
  57. Kim TW, et al. Caffeine increases sweating sensitivity via changes in sudomotor activity during physical loading. J Med Food. (2011)
  58. Astrup A, et al. Caffeine: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of its thermogenic, metabolic, and cardiovascular effects in healthy volunteers. Am J Clin Nutr. (1990)
  59. Acheson KJ, et al. Metabolic effects of caffeine in humans: lipid oxidation or futile cycling?. Am J Clin Nutr. (2004)
  60. Gonçalves LS, et al. Dispelling the myth that habitual caffeine consumption influences the performance response to acute caffeine supplementation. J Appl Physiol (1985). (2017)
  61. Verster JC, Koenig J. Caffeine intake and its sources: A review of national representative studies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. (2018)
  62. Guessous I, Eap CB, Bochud M. Blood pressure in relation to coffee and caffeine consumption. Curr Hypertens Rep. (2014)
  63. Nurminen ML, et al. Coffee, caffeine and blood pressure: a critical review. Eur J Clin Nutr. (1999)
  64. Greenberg JA, Chow G, Ziegelstein RC. Caffeinated coffee consumption, cardiovascular disease, and heart valve disease in the elderly (from the Framingham Study). Am J Cardiol. (2008)
  65. Li M, et al. The effect of caffeine on intraocular pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. (2011)
  66. Chandrasekaran S, Rochtchina E, Mitchell P. Effects of caffeine on intraocular pressure: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. J Glaucoma. (2005)
  67. Lohsiriwat S, Puengna N, Leelakusolvong S. Effect of caffeine on lower esophageal sphincter pressure in Thai healthy volunteers. Dis Esophagus. (2006)

This page is regularly updated, to include the most recently available clinical trial evidence.

Each member of our research team is required to have no conflicts of interest, including with supplement manufacturers, food companies, and industry funders. The team includes nutrition researchers, registered dietitians, physicians, and pharmacists. We have a strict editorial process.

This page features 67 references. All factual claims are followed by specifically-applicable references. Click here to see the full set of research information and references for Coffee.

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