Creatine

Last Updated: May 23, 2023

Creatine is among the most well-researched and effective supplements. It can help with exercise performance by rapidly producing energy during intense activity. Creatine may also provide cognitive benefits, but more research is needed in that area.

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Creatine is most often used for

What is creatine?

Creatine is a molecule that is produced in the body from amino acids. It's primarily made in the liver and (to a lesser extent) in the kidneys and pancreas.[1][2] Creatine stores high-energy phosphate groups in the form of phosphocreatine. These phosphate groups are donated to ADP to regenerate it to ATP, the primary energy carrier in the body.[3] This role in energy production is particularly relevant under conditions of high energy demand, such as intense physical or mental activity.

Creatine can be found in some animal-based foods and is most prevalent in meat and fish.[4][5] Athletes commonly take it as a powder or in capsules.

Can creatine cause cancer?

What are creatine’s main benefits?

The primary benefit of creatine is an improvement in strength and power output during resistance exercise. Creatine is well researched for this purpose, and the effects are quite notable for a supplement. When used in conjunction with resistance exercise, creatine may modestly increase lean mass. It has also been tested for effects on anaerobic running capacity in many studies, the results of which are rather mixed but generally suggest a small improvement in performance.

Although creatine has been researched far less for cognitive performance than physical performance, it may have benefits in some contexts. Creatine appears to reduce mental fatigue in scenarios such as demanding mental activity and sleep deprivation.[6][7] Creatine may also improve working memory, though likely only for people with below-average creatine levels, such as vegetarians and older adults.[8][9] More research is needed in these areas and on other cognitive measures before creatine can be said to be effective.

Does creatine benefit elite athletes?

Can creatine increase your testosterone levels?

What are creatine’s main drawbacks?

Diarrhea and nausea can occur when too much creatine is taken at one time, in which case the doses should be spread out throughout the day and taken with meals. Creatine supplementation typically results in weight gain, partly due to an increase in total body water.[10] This may be of particular concern to individuals competing in weight-sensitive sports.

Is creatine safe for your kidneys?

Does creatine cause hair loss?

How does creatine work?

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a molecule that carries energy within cells and is the main fuel source for high-intensity exercise. When cells use ATP for energy, this molecule is converted into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine monophosphate (AMP). Creatine exists in cells in the form of creatine phosphate (or phosphocreatine), which donates a high-energy phosphate group to ADP, thus turning this molecule back into ATP.

By increasing the overall pool of cellular phosphocreatine, creatine supplementation can accelerate the recycling of ADP into ATP, thereby making more energy available for high-intensity exercise. This increased availability of energy can promote improvements in strength and power output.[11]

Do I need to load creatine?

Does caffeine counteract creatine?

What else is Creatine known as?
Note that Creatine is also known as:
  • creatine monohydrate
  • creatine 2-oxopropanoate
  • a-methylguanidinoacetic acid
Creatine should not be confused with:
Dosage information

There are many different forms of creatine available on the market, but creatine monohydrate is the cheapest and most effective. Another option is micronized creatine monohydrate, which dissolves in water more easily and can be more practical.

Creatine monohydrate can be supplemented through a loading protocol. To start loading, take 0.3 grams per kilogram of bodyweight per day for 5–7 days, then follow with at least 0.03 g/kg/day either for three weeks (if cycling) or indefinitely (without additional loading phases).

For a 180 lb (82 kg) person, this translates to 25 g/day during the loading phase and 2.5 g/day afterward, although many users take 5 g/day due to the low price of creatine and the possibility of experiencing increased benefits. Higher doses (up to 10 g/day) may be beneficial for people with a high amount of muscle mass and high activity levels or for those who are non-responders to the lower 5 g/day dose.

Stomach cramping can occur when creatine is supplemented without sufficient water. Diarrhea and nausea can occur when too much creatine is supplemented at once, in which case doses should be spread out over the day and taken with meals.

What is the best form of creatine?

Although several forms of creatine have been investigated, there is no indication that there is a best form. With that said, it's important to highlight that creatine monohydrate has the most evidence behind it to support its efficacy.

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Research Breakdown

References
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Examine Database References
  1. Aerobic Exercise Metrics - Reardon TF, Ruell PA, Fiatarone Singh MA, Thompson CH, Rooney KBCreatine supplementation does not enhance submaximal aerobic training adaptations in healthy young men and womenEur J Appl Physiol.(2006 Oct)
  2. Aerobic Exercise Metrics - Tarnopolsky MA, Roy BD, MacDonald JRA randomized, controlled trial of creatine monohydrate in patients with mitochondrial cytopathiesMuscle Nerve.(1997 Dec)
  3. Alertness - Pan JW, Takahashi KCerebral energetic effects of creatine supplementation in humansAm J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.(2007 Apr)
  4. Alertness - Cook CJ, Crewther BT, Kilduff LP, Drawer S, Gaviglio CMSkill execution and sleep deprivation: effects of acute caffeine or creatine supplementation - a randomized placebo-controlled trialJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2011 Feb 16)
  5. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Pastula DM, Moore DH, Bedlack RSCreatine for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/motor neuron diseaseCochrane Database Syst Rev.(2012 Dec 12)
  6. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Shefner JM, Cudkowicz ME, Schoenfeld D, Conrad T, Taft J, Chilton M, Urbinelli L, Qureshi M, Zhang H, Pestronk A, Caress J, Donofrio P, Sorenson E, Bradley W, Lomen-Hoerth C, Pioro E, Rezania K, Ross M, Pascuzzi R, Heiman-Patterson T, Tandan R, Mitsumoto H, Rothstein J, Smith-Palmer T, MacDonald D, Burke D; NEALS ConsortiumA clinical trial of creatine in ALSNeurology.(2004 Nov 9)
  7. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Mazzini L, Balzarini C, Colombo R, Mora G, Pastore I, De Ambrogio R, Caligari MEffects of creatine supplementation on exercise performance and muscular strength in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: preliminary resultsJ Neurol Sci.(2001 Oct 15)
  8. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Groeneveld GJ, Veldink JH, van der Tweel I, Kalmijn S, Beijer C, de Visser M, Wokke JH, Franssen H, van den Berg LHA randomized sequential trial of creatine in amyotrophic lateral sclerosisAnn Neurol.(2003 Apr)
  9. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Rosenfeld J, King RM, Jackson CE, Bedlack RS, Barohn RJ, Dick A, Phillips LH, Chapin J, Gelinas DF, Lou JSCreatine monohydrate in ALS: effects on strength, fatigue, respiratory status and ALSFRSAmyotroph Lateral Scler.(2008 Oct)
  10. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Symptoms - Drory VE, Gross DNo effect of creatine on respiratory distress in amyotrophic lateral sclerosisAmyotroph Lateral Scler Other Motor Neuron Disord.(2002 Mar)
  11. Anaerobic Capacity - Kinugasa R, Akima H, Ota A, Ohta A, Sugiura K, Kuno SYShort-term creatine supplementation does not improve muscle activation or sprint performance in humansEur J Appl Physiol.(2004 Mar)
  12. Anaerobic Capacity - Havenetidis K, Bourdas DCreatine supplementation: effects on urinary excretion and anaerobic performanceJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2003 Sep)
  13. Anaerobic Capacity - Javierre C, Barbany JR, Bonjorn VM, Lizárraga MA, Ventura JL, Segura RCreatine supplementation and performance in 6 consecutive 60 meter sprintsJ Physiol Biochem.(2004 Dec)
  14. Anaerobic Capacity - Fukuda DH, Smith AE, Kendall KL, Dwyer TR, Kerksick CM, Beck TW, Cramer JT, Stout JRThe effects of creatine loading and gender on anaerobic running capacityJ Strength Cond Res.(2010 Jul)
  15. Anaerobic Capacity - Ahmun RP, Tong RJ, Grimshaw PNThe effects of acute creatine supplementation on multiple sprint cycling and running performance in rugby playersJ Strength Cond Res.(2005 Feb)
  16. Anaerobic Capacity - Glaister M, Lockey RA, Abraham CS, Staerck A, Goodwin JE, McInnes GCreatine supplementation and multiple sprint running performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 May)
  17. Anaerobic Capacity - Wright GA, Grandjean PW, Pascoe DDThe effects of creatine loading on thermoregulation and intermittent sprint exercise performance in a hot humid environmentJ Strength Cond Res.(2007 Aug)
  18. Anaerobic Capacity - Mero AA, Keskinen KL, Malvela MT, Sallinen JMCombined creatine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation enhances interval swimmingJ Strength Cond Res.(2004 May)
  19. Anaerobic Capacity - Okudan N, Gokbel HThe effects of creatine supplementation on performance during the repeated bouts of supramaximal exerciseJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2005 Dec)
  20. Anaerobic Capacity - Perret C, Mueller G, Knecht HInfluence of creatine supplementation on 800 m wheelchair performance: a pilot studySpinal Cord.(2006 May)
  21. Anaerobic Capacity - Cornish SM, Chilibeck PD, Burke DGThe effect of creatine monohydrate supplementation on sprint skating in ice-hockey playersJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2006 Mar)
  22. Bilirubin - Roy BD, de Beer J, Harvey D, Tarnopolsky MACreatine monohydrate supplementation does not improve functional recovery after total knee arthroplastyArch Phys Med Rehabil.(2005 Jul)
  23. Bone Mineral Density - Chilibeck PD, Chrusch MJ, Chad KE, Shawn Davison K, Burke DGCreatine monohydrate and resistance training increase bone mineral content and density in older menJ Nutr Health Aging.(2005 Sep-Oct)
  24. Cognition - Rae C, Digney AL, McEwan SR, Bates TCOral creatine monohydrate supplementation improves brain performance: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trialProc Biol Sci.(2003 Oct 22)
  25. Cognition - Benton D, Donohoe RThe influence of creatine supplementation on the cognitive functioning of vegetarians and omnivoresBr J Nutr.(2011 Apr)
  26. Cognition - Rawson ES, Lieberman HR, Walsh TM, Zuber SM, Harhart JM, Matthews TCCreatine supplementation does not improve cognitive function in young adultsPhysiol Behav.(2008 Sep 3)
  27. Cognition - McMorris T, Mielcarz G, Harris RC, Swain JP, Howard ACreatine supplementation and cognitive performance in elderly individualsNeuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn.(2007 Sep)
  28. Creatinine - Deminice R, Rosa FT, Franco GS, Jordao AA, de Freitas ECEffects of creatine supplementation on oxidative stress and inflammatory markers after repeated-sprint exercise in humansNutrition.(2013 Sep)
  29. Creatinine - Kornblum C, Schröder R, Müller K, Vorgerd M, Eggers J, Bogdanow M, Papassotiropoulos A, Fabian K, Klockgether T, Zange JCreatine has no beneficial effect on skeletal muscle energy metabolism in patients with single mitochondrial DNA deletions: a placebo-controlled, double-blind 31P-MRS crossover studyEur J Neurol.(2005 Apr)
  30. Creatinine - Mayhew DL, Mayhew JL, Ware JSEffects of long-term creatine supplementation on liver and kidney functions in American college football playersInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2002 Dec)
  31. Cystic Fibrosis Symptoms - Christian P Braegger, Uwe Schlattner, Theo Wallimann, Anna Utiger, Friederike Frank, Beat Schaefer, Claus W Heizmann, Felix H SennhauserEffects of creatine supplementation in cystic fibrosis: results of a pilot studyJ Cyst Fibros.(2003 Dec)
  32. DNA methylation - Freilinger M, Dunkler D, Lanator I, Item CB, Mühl A, Fowler B, Bodamer OAEffects of creatine supplementation in Rett syndrome: a randomized, placebo-controlled trialJ Dev Behav Pediatr.(2011 Jul-Aug)
  33. Depression Symptoms - Kondo DG, Sung YH, Hellem TL, Fiedler KK, Shi X, Jeong EK, Renshaw PFOpen-label adjunctive creatine for female adolescents with SSRI-resistant major depressive disorder: a 31-phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy studyJ Affect Disord.(2011 Dec)
  34. Depression Symptoms - Lyoo IK, Yoon S, Kim TS, Hwang J, Kim JE, Won W, Bae S, Renshaw PFA randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial of oral creatine monohydrate augmentation for enhanced response to a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in women with major depressive disorderAm J Psychiatry.(2012 Sep)
  35. Depression Symptoms - Roitman S, Green T, Osher Y, Karni N, Levine JCreatine monohydrate in resistant depression: a preliminary studyBipolar Disord.(2007 Nov)
  36. Dizziness - George Sakellaris, George Nasis, Maria Kotsiou, Maria Tamiolaki, Giorgos Charissis, Athanasios EvangeliouPrevention of traumatic headache, dizziness and fatigue with creatine administration. A pilot studyActa Paediatr.(2008 Jan)
  37. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms - Tarnopolsky MA, Mahoney DJ, Vajsar J, Rodriguez C, Doherty TJ, Roy BD, Biggar DCreatine monohydrate enhances strength and body composition in Duchenne muscular dystrophyNeurology.(2004 May 25)
  38. Exercise Capacity (with Heart Conditions) - Al-Ghimlas F, Todd DCCreatine supplementation for patients with COPD receiving pulmonary rehabilitation: a systematic review and meta-analysisRespirology.(2010 Jul)
  39. Exercise Capacity (with Heart Conditions) - Kuethe F, Krack A, Richartz BM, Figulla HRCreatine supplementation improves muscle strength in patients with congestive heart failurePharmazie.(2006 Mar)
  40. Exercise Tolerance - Vorgerd M, Zange J, Kley R, Grehl T, Hüsing A, Jäger M, Müller K, Schröder R, Mortier W, Fabian K, Malin JP, Luttmann AEffect of high-dose creatine therapy on symptoms of exercise intolerance in McArdle disease: double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover studyArch Neurol.(2002 Jan)
  41. Exercise Tolerance - Vorgerd M, Grehl T, Jager M, Muller K, Freitag G, Patzold T, Bruns N, Fabian K, Tegenthoff M, Mortier W, Luttmann A, Zange J, Malin JPCreatine therapy in myophosphorylase deficiency (McArdle disease): a placebo-controlled crossover trialArch Neurol.(2000 Jul)
  42. Fatigue Resistance - Eric S Rawson, Michael J Stec, Sara J Frederickson, Mary P MilesLow-dose creatine supplementation enhances fatigue resistance in the absence of weight gainNutrition.(2011 Apr)
  43. Fatigue Resistance - Stout JR, Cramer JT, Mielke M, O'Kroy J, Torok DJ, Zoeller RFEffects of twenty-eight days of beta-alanine and creatine monohydrate supplementation on the physical working capacity at neuromuscular fatigue thresholdJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 Nov)
  44. Fatigue Resistance - Stout JR, Sue Graves B, Cramer JT, Goldstein ER, Costa PB, Smith AE, Walter AAEffects of creatine supplementation on the onset of neuromuscular fatigue threshold and muscle strength in elderly men and women (64 - 86 years)J Nutr Health Aging.(2007 Nov-Dec)
  45. Fatigue Symptoms - Watanabe A, Kato N, Kato TEffects of creatine on mental fatigue and cerebral hemoglobin oxygenationNeurosci Res.(2002 Apr)
  46. Fibromyalgia Symptoms - Avi Leader, Daniella Amital, Alan Rubinow, Howard AmitalAn open-label study adding creatine monohydrate to ongoing medical regimens in patients with the fibromyalgia syndromeAnn N Y Acad Sci.(2009 Sep)
  47. Food Intake - Gualano B, Novaes RB, Artioli GG, Freire TO, Coelho DF, Scagliusi FB, Rogeri PS, Roschel H, Ugrinowitsch C, Lancha AH JrEffects of creatine supplementation on glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in sedentary healthy males undergoing aerobic trainingAmino Acids.(2008 Feb)
  48. Functionality in Elderly or Injured - Cañete S, San Juan AF, Pérez M, Gómez-Gallego F, López-Mojares LM, Earnest CP, Fleck SJ, Lucia ADoes creatine supplementation improve functional capacity in elderly womenJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 Feb)
  49. Glycemic Control - Gualano B, DE Salles Painneli V, Roschel H, Artioli GG, Neves M Jr, De Sá Pinto AL, Da Silva ME, Cunha MR, Otaduy MC, Leite Cda C, Ferreira JC, Pereira RM, Brum PC, Bonfá E, Lancha AH JrCreatine in type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2011 May)
  50. Growth Hormone - Schedel JM, Tanaka H, Kiyonaga A, Shindo M, Schutz YAcute creatine loading enhances human growth hormone secretionJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2000 Dec)
  51. Heart Rate - Dabidi Roshan V, Babaei H, Hosseinzadeh M, Arendt-Nielsen LThe effect of creatine supplementation on muscle fatigue and physiological indices following intermittent swimming boutsJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2013 Jun)
  52. Homocysteine - Korzun WJOral creatine supplements lower plasma homocysteine concentrations in humansClin Lab Sci.(2004 Spring)
  53. Huntington's Disease Symptoms - Verbessem P, Lemiere J, Eijnde BO, Swinnen S, Vanhees L, Van Leemputte M, Hespel P, Dom RCreatine supplementation in Huntington's disease: a placebo-controlled pilot trialNeurology.(2003 Oct 14)
  54. Huntington's Disease Symptoms - Andreas Bender, Dorothee P Auer, Thomas Merl, Ralf Reilmann, Phillip Saemann, Alexander Yassouridis, Julia Bender, Adolf Weindl, Matthias Dose, Thomas Gasser, Thomas KlopstockCreatine supplementation lowers brain glutamate levels in Huntington's diseaseJ Neurol.(2005 Jan)
  55. Hydration (Total Body Water) - Nicholas Sculthorpe, Fergal Grace, Peter Jones, Iain FletcherThe effect of short-term creatine loading on active range of movementAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2010 Aug)
  56. Hydration (Total Body Water) - Weiss BA, Powers MECreatine supplementation does not impair the thermoregulatory response during a bout of exercise in the heatJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2006 Dec)
  57. Hydration (Total Body Water) - Easton C, Turner S, Pitsiladis YPCreatine and glycerol hyperhydration in trained subjects before exercise in the heatInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2007 Feb)
  58. Hydration (Total Body Water) - Watson G, Casa DJ, Fiala KA, Hile A, Roti MW, Healey JC, Armstrong LE, Maresh CMCreatine use and exercise heat tolerance in dehydrated menJ Athl Train.(2006 Jan-Mar)
  59. Hydration (Total Body Water) - Lopez RM, Casa DJ, McDermott BP, Ganio MS, Armstrong LE, Maresh CMDoes creatine supplementation hinder exercise heat tolerance or hydration status? A systematic review with meta-analysesJ Athl Train.(2009 Mar-Apr)
  60. IGF-1 - Burke DG, Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, MacNeil LG, Roy BD, Tarnopolsky MA, Ziegenfuss TEffect of creatine supplementation and resistance-exercise training on muscle insulin-like growth factor in young adultsInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2008 Aug)
  61. IGF-1 - Louise Deldicque, Magali Louis, Daniel Theisen, Henri Nielens, Mischaël Dehoux, Jean-Paul Thissen, Michael J Rennie, Marc FrancauxIncreased IGF mRNA in human skeletal muscle after creatine supplementationMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2005 May)
  62. Insulin - van Loon LJ, Murphy R, Oosterlaar AM, Cameron-Smith D, Hargreaves M, Wagenmakers AJ, Snow RCreatine supplementation increases glycogen storage but not GLUT-4 expression in human skeletal muscleClin Sci (Lond).(2004 Jan)
  63. Insulin - Rooney KB, Bryson JM, Digney AL, Rae CD, Thompson CHCreatine supplementation affects glucose homeostasis but not insulin secretion in humansAnn Nutr Metab.(2003)
  64. Kidney Function - Groeneveld GJ, Beijer C, Veldink JH, Kalmijn S, Wokke JH, van den Berg LHFew adverse effects of long-term creatine supplementation in a placebo-controlled trialInt J Sports Med.(2005 May)
  65. Kidney Function - Gualano B, de Salles Painelli V, Roschel H, Lugaresi R, Dorea E, Artioli GG, Lima FR, da Silva ME, Cunha MR, Seguro AC, Shimizu MH, Otaduy MC, Sapienza MT, da Costa Leite C, Bonfá E, Lancha Junior AHCreatine supplementation does not impair kidney function in type 2 diabetic patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical trialEur J Appl Physiol.(2011 May)
  66. Kidney Function - Gualano B, Ugrinowitsch C, Novaes RB, Artioli GG, Shimizu MH, Seguro AC, Harris RC, Lancha AH JrEffects of creatine supplementation on renal function: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trialEur J Appl Physiol.(2008 May)
  67. Kidney Function - Gualano B, Ferreira DC, Sapienza MT, Seguro AC, Lancha AH JrEffect of short-term high-dose creatine supplementation on measured GFR in a young man with a single kidneyAm J Kidney Dis.(2010 Mar)
  68. Kidney Function - Taes YE, Delanghe JR, De Bacquer D, Langlois M, Stevens L, Geerolf I, Lameire NH, De Vriese ASCreatine supplementation does not decrease total plasma homocysteine in chronic hemodialysis patientsKidney Int.(2004 Dec)
  69. Kidney Function - Manoel Neves Jr, Bruno Gualano, Hamilton Roschel, Fernanda Rodrigues Lima, Ana Lúcia de Sá-Pinto, Antonio Carlos Seguro, Maria Heloisa Shimizu, Marcelo Tatit Sapienza, Ricardo Fuller, Antonio Herbert Lancha Jr, Eloisa BonfáEffect of creatine supplementation on measured glomerular filtration rate in postmenopausal womenAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2011 Jun)
  70. Lean Mass - Neves M Jr, Gualano B, Roschel H, Fuller R, Benatti FB, Pinto AL, Lima FR, Pereira RM, Lancha AH Jr, Bonfá EBeneficial effect of creatine supplementation in knee osteoarthritisMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2011 Aug)
  71. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Earnest CP, Almada AL, Mitchell TLHigh-performance capillary electrophoresis-pure creatine monohydrate reduces blood lipids in men and womenClin Sci (Lond).(1996 Jul)
  72. Mitochondrial Cytopathies Symptoms - A Borchert, E Wilichowski, F HanefeldSupplementation with creatine monohydrate in children with mitochondrial encephalomyopathiesMuscle Nerve.(1999 Sep)
  73. Muscle Creatine Content - Banerjee B, Sharma U, Balasubramanian K, Kalaivani M, Kalra V, Jagannathan NREffect of creatine monohydrate in improving cellular energetics and muscle strength in ambulatory Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients: a randomized, placebo-controlled 31P MRS studyMagn Reson Imaging.(2010 Jun)
  74. Muscle Creatine Content - Watt KK, Garnham AP, Snow RJSkeletal muscle total creatine content and creatine transporter gene expression in vegetarians prior to and following creatine supplementationInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2004 Oct)
  75. Muscle Creatine Content - Nelson AG, Arnall DA, Kokkonen J, Day R, Evans JMuscle glycogen supercompensation is enhanced by prior creatine supplementationMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2001 Jul)
  76. Muscle Creatine Content - Thompson CH, Kemp GJ, Sanderson AL, Dixon RM, Styles P, Taylor DJ, Radda GKEffect of creatine on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism in skeletal muscle in swimmersBr J Sports Med.(1996 Sep)
  77. Muscle Creatine Content - Jeffrey J Brault, Theodore F Towse, Jill M Slade, Ronald A MeyerParallel increases in phosphocreatine and total creatine in human vastus lateralis muscle during creatine supplementationInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2007 Dec)
  78. Muscle Creatine Content - McConell GK, Shinewell J, Stephens TJ, Stathis CG, Canny BJ, Snow RJCreatine supplementation reduces muscle inosine monophosphate during endurance exercise in humansMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2005 Dec)
  79. Muscle Creatine Content - van Loon LJ, Oosterlaar AM, Hartgens F, Hesselink MK, Snow RJ, Wagenmakers AJEffects of creatine loading and prolonged creatine supplementation on body composition, fuel selection, sprint and endurance performance in humansClin Sci (Lond).(2003 Feb)
  80. Muscle Creatine Content - Hadjicharalambous M, Kilduff LP, Pitsiladis YPBrain serotonin and dopamine modulators, perceptual responses and endurance performance during exercise in the heat following creatine supplementationJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2008 Sep 30)
  81. Muscle Creatine Content - Robinson TM, Sewell DA, Hultman E, Greenhaff PLRole of submaximal exercise in promoting creatine and glycogen accumulation in human skeletal muscleJ Appl Physiol (1985).(1999 Aug)
  82. Muscle Creatine Content - Op 't Eijnde B, Ursø B, Richter EA, Greenhaff PL, Hespel PEffect of oral creatine supplementation on human muscle GLUT4 protein content after immobilizationDiabetes.(2001 Jan)
  83. Muscle Creatine Content - Jacques R Poortmans, Alain Kumps, Pierre Duez, Aline Fofonka, Alain Carpentier, Marc FrancauxEffect of oral creatine supplementation on urinary methylamine, formaldehyde, and formateMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2005 Oct)
  84. Muscle Damage - Cooke MB, Rybalka E, Williams AD, Cribb PJ, Hayes ACreatine supplementation enhances muscle force recovery after eccentrically-induced muscle damage in healthy individualsJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2009 Jun 2)
  85. Muscle Damage - Santos RV, Bassit RA, Caperuto EC, Costa Rosa LFThe effect of creatine supplementation upon inflammatory and muscle soreness markers after a 30km raceLife Sci.(2004 Sep 3)
  86. Muscle Damage - Bassit RA, Pinheiro CH, Vitzel KF, Sproesser AJ, Silveira LR, Curi REffect of short-term creatine supplementation on markers of skeletal muscle damage after strenuous contractile activityEur J Appl Physiol.(2010 Mar)
  87. Muscle Damage - Rawson ES, Conti MP, Miles MPCreatine supplementation does not reduce muscle damage or enhance recovery from resistance exerciseJ Strength Cond Res.(2007 Nov)
  88. Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms - Tarnopolsky M, Mahoney D, Thompson T, Naylor H, Doherty TJCreatine monohydrate supplementation does not increase muscle strength, lean body mass, or muscle phosphocreatine in patients with myotonic dystrophy type 1Muscle Nerve.(2004 Jan)
  89. Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms - Walter MC, Reilich P, Lochmüller H, Kohnen R, Schlotter B, Hautmann H, Dunkl E, Pongratz D, Müller-Felber WCreatine monohydrate in myotonic dystrophy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical studyJ Neurol.(2002 Dec)
  90. Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms - Schneider-Gold C, Beck M, Wessig C, George A, Kele H, Reiners K, Toyka KVCreatine monohydrate in DM2/PROMM: a double-blind placebo-controlled clinical study. Proximal myotonic myopathyNeurology.(2003 Feb 11)
  91. Muscular Endurance - Armentano MJ, Brenner AK, Hedman TL, Solomon ZT, Chavez J, Kemper GB, Salzberg D, Battafarano DF, Christie DSThe effect and safety of short-term creatine supplementation on performance of push-upsMil Med.(2007 Mar)
  92. Muscular Endurance - Ayoama R, Hiruma E, Sasaki HEffects of creatine loading on muscular strength and endurance of female softball playersJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2003 Dec)
  93. Oxygen Uptake - Kingsley M, Cunningham D, Mason L, Kilduff LP, McEneny JRole of creatine supplementation on exercise-induced cardiovascular function and oxidative stressOxid Med Cell Longev.(2009 Sep-Oct)
  94. Oxygen Uptake - Zoeller RF, Stout JR, O'kroy JA, Torok DJ, Mielke MEffects of 28 days of beta-alanine and creatine monohydrate supplementation on aerobic power, ventilatory and lactate thresholds, and time to exhaustionAmino Acids.(2007 Sep)
  95. Parkinson's Disease Symptoms - Writing Group for the NINDS Exploratory Trials in Parkinson Disease (NET-PD) Investigators, Kieburtz K, Tilley BC, Elm JJ, Babcock D, Hauser R, Ross GW, Augustine AH, Augustine EU, Aminoff MJ, Bodis-Wollner IG, Boyd J, Cambi F, Chou K, Christine CW, Cines M, Dahodwala N, Derwent L, Dewey RB Jr, Hawthorne K, Houghton DJ, Kamp C, Leehey M, Lew MF, Liang GS, Luo ST, Mari Z, Morgan JC, Parashos S, Pérez A, Petrovitch H, Rajan S, Reichwein S, Roth JT, Schneider JS, Shannon KM, Simon DK, Simuni T, Singer C, Sudarsky L, Tanner CM, Umeh CC, Williams K, Wills AMEffect of creatine monohydrate on clinical progression in patients with Parkinson disease: a randomized clinical trialJAMA.(2015 Feb 10)
  96. Parkinson's Disease Symptoms - Bender A, Koch W, Elstner M, Schombacher Y, Bender J, Moeschl M, Gekeler F, Müller-Myhsok B, Gasser T, Tatsch K, Klopstock TCreatine supplementation in Parkinson disease: a placebo-controlled randomized pilot trialNeurology.(2006 Oct 10)
  97. Power Output - Arciero PJ, Hannibal NS 3rd, Nindl BC, Gentile CL, Hamed J, Vukovich MDComparison of creatine ingestion and resistance training on energy expenditure and limb blood flowMetabolism.(2001 Dec)
  98. Power Output - Jonathan P Little, Scott C Forbes, Darren G Candow, Stephen M Cornish, Philip D ChilibeckCreatine, arginine alpha-ketoglutarate, amino acids, and medium-chain triglycerides and endurance and performanceInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2008 Oct)
  99. Power Output - Spillane M, Schoch R, Cooke M, Harvey T, Greenwood M, Kreider R, Willoughby DSThe effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation combined with heavy resistance training on body composition, muscle performance, and serum and muscle creatine levelsJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2009 Feb 19)
  100. Power Output - Branch JDEffect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: a meta-analysisInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2003 Jun)
  101. Power Output - Chilibeck PD, Magnus C, Anderson MEffect of in-season creatine supplementation on body composition and performance in rugby union football playersAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2007 Dec)
  102. Power Output - Sakkas GK, Mulligan K, Dasilva M, Doyle JW, Khatami H, Schleich T, Kent-Braun JA, Schambelan MCreatine fails to augment the benefits from resistance training in patients with HIV infection: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studyPLoS One.(2009)
  103. Power Output - Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Parise G, Candow DG, Mahoney D, Tarnopolsky MEffect of creatine and weight training on muscle creatine and performance in vegetariansMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2003 Nov)
  104. Power Output - Manjarrez-Montes de Oca R, Farfán-González F, Camarillo-Romero S, Tlatempa-Sotelo P, Francisco-Argüelles C, Kormanowski A, González-Gallego J, Alvear-Ordenes IEffects of creatine supplementation in taekwondo practitionersNutr Hosp.(2013 Mar-Apr)
  105. Power Output - Gotshalk LA, Kraemer WJ, Mendonca MA, Vingren JL, Kenny AM, Spiering BA, Hatfield DL, Fragala MS, Volek JSCreatine supplementation improves muscular performance in older womenEur J Appl Physiol.(2008 Jan)
  106. Power Output - Kerksick CM, Wilborn CD, Campbell WI, Harvey TM, Marcello BM, Roberts MD, Parker AG, Byars AG, Greenwood LD, Almada AL, Kreider RB, Greenwood MThe effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation with and without D-pinitol on resistance training adaptationsJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 Dec)
  107. Power Output - Kilduff LP, Pitsiladis YP, Tasker L, Attwood J, Hyslop P, Dailly A, Dickson I, Grant SEffects of creatine on body composition and strength gains after 4 weeks of resistance training in previously nonresistance-trained humansInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2003 Dec)
  108. Power Output - Faager G, Söderlund K, Sköld CM, Rundgren S, Tollbäck A, Jakobsson PCreatine supplementation and physical training in patients with COPD: a double blind, placebo-controlled studyInt J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis.(2006)
  109. Power Output - Tarnopolsky M, Martin JCreatine monohydrate increases strength in patients with neuromuscular diseaseNeurology.(1999 Mar 10)
  110. Power Output - Chilibeck PD, Stride D, Farthing JP, Burke DGEffect of creatine ingestion after exercise on muscle thickness in males and femalesMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2004 Oct)
  111. Power Output - Carter JM, Bemben DA, Knehans AW, Bemben MG, Witten MSDoes nutritional supplementation influence adaptability of muscle to resistance training in men aged 48 to 72 yearsJ Geriatr Phys Ther.(2005)
  112. Power Output - Kendall KL, Smith AE, Graef JL, Fukuda DH, Moon JR, Beck TW, Cramer JT, Stout JREffects of four weeks of high-intensity interval training and creatine supplementation on critical power and anaerobic working capacity in college-aged menJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 Sep)
  113. Power Output - Hoffman J, Ratamess N, Kang J, Mangine G, Faigenbaum A, Stout JEffect of creatine and beta-alanine supplementation on performance and endocrine responses in strength/power athletesInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2006 Aug)
  114. Power Output - Bazzucchi I, Felici F, Sacchetti MEffect of short-term creatine supplementation on neuromuscular functionMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2009 Oct)
  115. Power Output - Camic CL, Hendrix CR, Housh TJ, Zuniga JM, Mielke M, Johnson GO, Schmidt RJ, Housh DJThe effects of polyethylene glycosylated creatine supplementation on muscular strength and powerJ Strength Cond Res.(2010 Dec)
  116. Power Output - Eckerson JM, Bull AA, Moore GAEffect of thirty days of creatine supplementation with phosphate salts on anaerobic working capacity and body weight in menJ Strength Cond Res.(2008 May)
  117. Power Output - Bemben MG, Witten MS, Carter JM, Eliot KA, Knehans AW, Bemben DAThe effects of supplementation with creatine and protein on muscle strength following a traditional resistance training program in middle-aged and older menJ Nutr Health Aging.(2010 Feb)
  118. Power Output - Antonio J, Ciccone VThe effects of pre versus post workout supplementation of creatine monohydrate on body composition and strengthJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2013 Aug 6)
  119. Power Output - Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, Burke DG, Mueller KD, Lewis JDEffect of different frequencies of creatine supplementation on muscle size and strength in young adultsJ Strength Cond Res.(2011 Jul)
  120. Power Output - Trent J Herda, Travis W Beck, Eric D Ryan, Abbie E Smith, Ashley A Walter, Michael J Hartman, Jeffrey R Stout, Joel T CramerEffects of creatine monohydrate and polyethylene glycosylated creatine supplementation on muscular strength, endurance, and power outputJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 May)
  121. Power Output - Volek JS, Ratamess NA, Rubin MR, Gómez AL, French DN, McGuigan MM, Scheett TP, Sharman MJ, Häkkinen K, Kraemer WJThe effects of creatine supplementation on muscular performance and body composition responses to short-term resistance training overreachingEur J Appl Physiol.(2004 May)
  122. Power Output - Rawson ES, Volek JSEffects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength and weightlifting performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2003 Nov)
  123. Power Output - Netreba I, Shenkman BS, Popov DV, Tarasova OS, Vdovina AB, Khotchenkov VP, Stekhanova TN, Vinogradova OLCreatine as a metabolic controller of skeletal muscles structure and function in strength exercises in humansRoss Fiziol Zh Im I M Sechenova.(2006 Jan)
  124. Power Output - Ferguson TB, Syrotuik DGEffects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on body composition and strength indices in experienced resistance trained womenJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 Nov)
  125. Power Output - Saremi A, Gharakhanloo R, Sharghi S, Gharaati MR, Larijani B, Omidfar KEffects of oral creatine and resistance training on serum myostatin and GASP-1Mol Cell Endocrinol.(2010 Apr 12)
  126. Power Output - Law YL, Ong WS, GillianYap TL, Lim SC, Von Chia EEffects of two and five days of creatine loading on muscular strength and anaerobic power in trained athletesJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 May)
  127. Power Output - Koçak S, Karli UEffects of high dose oral creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity of elite wrestlersJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2003 Dec)
  128. Power Output - Graef JL, Smith AE, Kendall KL, Fukuda DH, Moon JR, Beck TW, Cramer JT, Stout JRThe effects of four weeks of creatine supplementation and high-intensity interval training on cardiorespiratory fitness: a randomized controlled trialJ Int Soc Sports Nutr.(2009 Nov 12)
  129. Power Output - Chia-Lun Lee, Jung-Charng Lin, Ching-Feng ChengEffect of caffeine ingestion after creatine supplementation on intermittent high-intensity sprint performanceEur J Appl Physiol.(2011 Aug)
  130. Power Output - Cramer JT, Stout JR, Culbertson JY, Egan ADEffects of creatine supplementation and three days of resistance training on muscle strength, power output, and neuromuscular functionJ Strength Cond Res.(2007 Aug)
  131. Power Output - Selsby JT, DiSilvestro RA, Devor STMg2+-creatine chelate and a low-dose creatine supplementation regimen improve exercise performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2004 May)
  132. Power Output - Del Favero S, Roschel H, Artioli G, Ugrinowitsch C, Tricoli V, Costa A, Barroso R, Negrelli AL, Otaduy MC, da Costa Leite C, Lancha-Junior AH, Gualano BCreatine but not betaine supplementation increases muscle phosphorylcreatine content and strength performanceAmino Acids.(2011 Jul 9)
  133. Power Output - Volek JS, Mazzetti SA, Farquhar WB, Barnes BR, Gómez AL, Kraemer WJPhysiological responses to short-term exercise in the heat after creatine loadingMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2001 Jul)
  134. Power Output - Burke LM, Pyne DB, Telford RDEffect of oral creatine supplementation on single-effort sprint performance in elite swimmersInt J Sport Nutr.(1996 Sep)
  135. Power Output - Silva AJ, Machado Reis V, Guidetti L, Bessone Alves F, Mota P, Freitas J, Baldari CEffect of creatine on swimming velocity, body composition and hydrodynamic variablesJ Sports Med Phys Fitness.(2007 Mar)
  136. Power Output - Anomasiri W, Sanguanrungsirikul S, Saichandee PLow dose creatine supplementation enhances sprint phase of 400 meters swimming performanceJ Med Assoc Thai.(2004 Sep)
  137. Power Output - Juhász I, Györe I, Csende Z, Rácz L, Tihanyi JCreatine supplementation improves the anaerobic performance of elite junior fin swimmersActa Physiol Hung.(2009 Sep)
  138. Power Output - Theodorou AS, Havenetidis K, Zanker CL, O'Hara JP, King RF, Hood C, Paradisis G, Cooke CBEffects of acute creatine loading with or without carbohydrate on repeated bouts of maximal swimming in high-performance swimmersJ Strength Cond Res.(2005 May)
  139. Power Output - Hass CJ, Collins MA, Juncos JLResistance training with creatine monohydrate improves upper-body strength in patients with Parkinson disease: a randomized trialNeurorehabil Neural Repair.(2007 Mar-Apr)
  140. Power Output - Rahimi RCreatine supplementation decreases oxidative DNA damage and lipid peroxidation induced by a single bout of resistance exerciseJ Strength Cond Res.(2011 Dec)
  141. Power Output - Hespel P, Op't Eijnde B, Van Leemputte M, Ursø B, Greenhaff PL, Labarque V, Dymarkowski S, Van Hecke P, Richter EAOral creatine supplementation facilitates the rehabilitation of disuse atrophy and alters the expression of muscle myogenic factors in humansJ Physiol.(2001 Oct 15)
  142. Power Output - Lamontagne-Lacasse M, Nadon R, Goulet EDEffect of Creatine Supplementation on Jumping Performance in Elite Volleyball PlayersInt J Sports Physiol Perform.(2011 Aug 22)
  143. Power Output - Pluim BM, Ferrauti A, Broekhof F, Deutekom M, Gotzmann A, Kuipers H, Weber KThe effects of creatine supplementation on selected factors of tennis specific trainingBr J Sports Med.(2006 Jun)
  144. Power Output - Koenig CA, Benardot D, Cody M, Thompson WRComparison of creatine monohydrate and carbohydrate supplementation on repeated jump height performanceJ Strength Cond Res.(2008 Jul)
  145. Satellite Cell Recruitment - Olsen S, Aagaard P, Kadi F, Tufekovic G, Verney J, Olesen JL, Suetta C, Kjaer MCreatine supplementation augments the increase in satellite cell and myonuclei number in human skeletal muscle induced by strength trainingJ Physiol.(2006 Jun 1)
  146. Schizophrenia symptoms - Kaptsan A, Odessky A, Osher Y, Levine JLack of efficacy of 5 grams daily of creatine in schizophrenia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialJ Clin Psychiatry.(2007 Jun)
  147. Skeletal Muscle Atrophy - Johnston AP, Burke DG, MacNeil LG, Candow DGEffect of creatine supplementation during cast-induced immobilization on the preservation of muscle mass, strength, and enduranceJ Strength Cond Res.(2009 Jan)
  148. Subjective Well-Being - McMorris T, Harris RC, Swain J, Corbett J, Collard K, Dyson RJ, Dye L, Hodgson C, Draper NEffect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with mild exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisolPsychopharmacology (Berl).(2006 Mar)
  149. Subjective Well-Being - McMorris T, Harris RC, Howard AN, Langridge G, Hall B, Corbett J, Dicks M, Hodgson CCreatine supplementation, sleep deprivation, cortisol, melatonin and behaviorPhysiol Behav.(2007 Jan 30)
  150. Subjective Well-Being - Norman K, Stübler D, Baier P, Schütz T, Ocran K, Holm E, Lochs H, Pirlich MEffects of creatine supplementation on nutritional status, muscle function and quality of life in patients with colorectal cancer--a double blind randomised controlled trialClin Nutr.(2006 Aug)
  151. Swimming Performance Metrics - Mujika I, Chatard JC, Lacoste L, Barale F, Geyssant ACreatine supplementation does not improve sprint performance in competitive swimmersMed Sci Sports Exerc.(1996 Nov)
  152. Swimming Performance Metrics - Mendes RR, Pires I, Oliveira A, Tirapegui JEffects of creatine supplementation on the performance and body composition of competitive swimmersJ Nutr Biochem.(2004 Aug)
  153. Swimming Performance Metrics - Selsby JT, Beckett KD, Kern M, Devor STSwim performance following creatine supplementation in Division III athletesJ Strength Cond Res.(2003 Aug)
  154. Swimming Performance Metrics - Leenders NM, Lamb DR, Nelson TECreatine supplementation and swimming performanceInt J Sport Nutr.(1999 Sep)
  155. Swimming Performance Metrics - Peyrebrune MC, Stokes K, Hall GM, Nevill MEEffect of creatine supplementation on training for competition in elite swimmersMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2005 Dec)
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